THE object of this little book is to help those who are beginning Greek to learn from the first to write the language as well as read it. There is among many teachers a strong belief (which I am inclined to share) that Greek is mastered much more effectively if a little writing be combined with the reading, even from the earliest stages. The great inferiority of the knowledge of Greek acquired at schools, as compared with Latin, is partly, no doubt, due to the language being harder and begun later, but partly also to the fact that Latin writing is cultivated from the first, while Greek writing is so commonly neglected.
The difficulties of Greek composition fall naturally into three heads, —difficulties of Accidence, of Syntax, and of Idiom. Speaking broadly, this book is meant to deal chiefly with the first, and so may serve as a first stage (for those who mean to pursue the study) to my Introduction to Greek Prose Composition! which deals with the other two sets of difficulties included under the head of Syntax and Idiom.
In reality, of course, it is neither possible nor desirable that this distinction should be rigidly maintained, as there are questions both of Syntax and Idiom which will-occur in the most elementary composition. Thus, if we take the sentence, ‘I used that horse which I had bought,’ while it would be difficult to find a more simple one, still it undoubtedly involves two points of Syntax—that χρῶμαι, ‘I use,’ requires the Dative case, and that ἐκεῖνος, ’ that,’ requires the Article——and two points of Idiom—that the Relative is attracted (not ὅν, but ᾧ) to the case of the antecedent, and that the Greeks would probably say, not ‘had bought,’ but ‘bought,’ so that the whole sentence would be ἐχρησάμην ἐκείνῳ τῷ ἵππῳ, ᾧ ἐπριάμην. Points such as these, which one may call the elements of Syntax and Idiom, will be found treated here with tolerable completeness. Thus the student will learn the use of the Tenses, the use of the Cases, the use of Participles, the use of the Genitive Absolute, all of which belong to the simple sentence, and are really quite easily grasped at an early stage, And I have introduced also from time to time the easier and commoner forms of even the Compound Sentence; the Accusative and Infinitive (familiar from Latin), the use of πρὶν and ὥστε with the Infinitive, the easy rules about ἵνα, and the two simplest cases of ἄν. In this way I have endeavoured to lead the student to the point at which he may take to more advanced books of Greek prose composition, or, if the teacher prefers, may do pieces selected from English narratives.
I have further endeavoured to make the book progressive from the beginning. The first few Exercises require no knowledge, except of the A Declension. After that we advance to the other Declensions, then to the easier Tenses of the Verbs, then the harder Tenses, etc. The same progressive character I have kept, or tried to keep, in introducing the usages; thus the Participial usages begin in Exercise 35, the Genitive Absolute in 50, Construction of ‘Knowing’ Verbs in 73, ‘Final’ Clauses in 79, and so on.
The same plan has been adhered to which was adopted in my Greek Prose Composition, of giving all the Exercises in a narrative form. This plan, which is intended to diminish the dulness of doing English into Greek, is even more desirable at the early stages of composition than at the later, inasmuch as the boys are younger, and the Accidence must in any case be great drudgery. It is not at all necessary that anything of value should be sacrificed in adopting this plan, if proper care be taken. The main difficulty, of course, was in the first Exercises, where only a few Substantives and Adjectives are supposed to be known; but this was got over by writing out the three tenses of the verb ‘to be,’ and, whenever any other verbs were used, giving the part required. Thus from the first the Exercises are more or less connected wholes, and the plan of familiarising the learner with certain common forms of the Verb before he comes to learn them, seemed not only unobjectionable but advantageous.
I have given all the new words used in each Exercise in a Vocabulary at the head of it, and αἰ the words of all the Exercises in the collected Vocabulary at the end. Thus, if the learner remembers the words he had already had, he will want no help but his Accidence and the page before him; if he forgets them, he will simply have to turn to the Vocabulary at the end. In the Vocabularies I have given the stems of the Substantives, and the Genders where doubtful, and, after the Exercises, a list of the Irregular Verbs used in them.
I will only add that I shall be most grateful if those who use the book will kindly point out any errors or omissions which they may detect.
Oxford, 1st July 1880.
Page 2, last line, for τᾶσων read πᾶσαν.
Page 54, line 1, for Indicative Optative read Indicative and Optative.
§ 1. The Article ὀ ἡ τό gives a good deal of trouble to the learner before its use is fully mastered, and it is best therefore to explain the main points about it at the very first.
There is no word in Greek for a, an: it is simply omitted: or the Indefinite Pronoun τις, ‘a certain one,’ is used. The Greek Article means the, and it is used (broadly speaking) wherever we use the, but also in some places where we do not. It is these latter which constitute the difficulty to the beginner.
In English we say ‘the bad man;’ and if we wish to translate this into Greek, the point to observe is that the adjective must have the article.
The order of Adjectives and Substantives may be inverted if we please. Thus we may say either ὁ κακὸς ἀνήρ, or ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ κακός; but in either case the Adjective must have the Article. ΄
If this rule is broken, as it is often by beginners, and if we write ὁ ἀνὴρ κακός, or κακὸς ὁ ἀνήρ, the phrase is still good Greek, but the meaning is quite altered; it is no longer ‘the bad man,’ but ‘the man is bad.’ The adjective, by being deprived of the article, has ceased to be an attribute, and has become a predicate.
The Article is sometimes used in English with only an Adjective, the Substantive being understood. This is also a Greek idiom, but is a great deal more frequent than in English, especially in the neuter. Examples :—
One usage must be carefully observed. When the Article is used with adjectives of position, the Adjective comes first, outside the Article. Thus :—
So with πᾶς, as often in English :—
Just as we have seen above in the case of the Adjective, so in English we can in a few cases use the Article with Participles (whether the Substantive is expressed or only understood does not matter); such as the following :—’ The living,’ ‘the dead,’ ‘the defeated cavalry,’ ‘the coming man,’ ‘the insufficiently apprehended truth,’ etc. In Greek there is no limit to this use. The following are a few examples :—.
And so with longer phrases :—
Constantly, therefore, when in English we have a relative sentence with a verb, in Greek we have simply a phrase (coupled to the noun) with Article and Participle.
Another very natural extension of the use of the Article in Greek is the following :—Instead of saying, as we might by § 5, οἵ ἐκ τῆς πόλεως ἐλθόντες, ‘the people who had come out of the city,’ since the sense is quite clear without the Participle, we can often say simply—οἱ ἐκ τῆς πόλεως, ‘the people from the city.’
So a vast number of convenient phrases :—
§ 7. Observe: it is very important for turning into Greek to notice whether such a clause as those given above belongs to the Substantive or not. On this will depend whether we have to put the Article or not.
Thus, compare the two sentences—
It is clear that in (1) ‘from Corinth’ belongs to the ‘stranger;’ while in (2) ‘in the street’ belongs not to ’stranger, but to the verb. In English, the sense only is our guide, not the structure. In Greek we know at once what is meant from the use of the Article.
Thus (1) is
and (2) is
Again, in some cases exactly the same phrase may either require the Article or not, according to circumstances. It depends on the principle above enunciated, namely, that the adverbial phrase without the Article belongs to the Verb, with the Article to the Substantive. Thus :—
The neuter Article τό is also very conveniently used with the Infinitive, where we use the gerund-form or verbal substantive in -ing. Thus :—
Or, if there is a subject to the Verb, the Accusative and Infinitive is used, as might be expected :—
Another point about the Article is its use with Demonstratives, which differs from the English usage, and therefore is important to observe.
Whenever ‘this’ or ‘that’ comes in English with a Substantive, the Article must come in the Greek with the Substantive, though the ’ this’ or ‘that’ may be either before after the Substantive.1 Thus :—
The same is true of ὅδε,
There are even with Substantives some cases where the English use of the differs from the Greek. Some of these are too subtle to be worth troubling about at an early stage: they will be learnt after. But some are quite easy, such as the following cases, where in English the Article is omitted, but in Greek is inserted —-
(a.) Class names (often).
(b.) Abstract.
§ 11. In Greek a Neuter Plural Noun requires the Singular Verb. Thus :—
The Personal Pronouns are used just as they are in English, for the most part: the exceptions being the following :—
Since the Verbs in Greek by their terminations show what person (1st, 2d, or 3d Singular or Plural) is the Nominative to them (just as is the case in Latin, but mostly not the case in English), it is clear that the Personal Pronouns in the Nominative may be frequently omitted. In fact they will only be put in when there is any emphasis upon them, or otherwise need of them for clearness. Thus :—
On the other hand, if there is any stress upon the person, the Pronoun must of course be put in, as—
This will naturally be done when in a narrative a new sentence begins with a new Nominative or subject. Thus :—
The Third Person in Greek requires a little care. The fact is, that while there is a Greek word for the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative of the Third Person, there is no proper Greek word for the Nominative (he, she, it, they) except with the particles μὲν and δὲ, which can only occur at the beginning of a sentence or clause. This is simply due to the fact that it is not wanted. Let us consider the various cases where he (etc.) is used in English.
(a.) Where there is no emphasis or stress on the person, and it is quite clear who is meant, there is no need in Greek of a Pronoun at all. See § 12.
(b.) At the beginning of clauses or new sentences in narrative, where the Pronouns are required for clearness, ὁ μέν and ὁ δέ can be used. It should be mentioned that μὲν is not used except with a δὲ clause corresponding and following after it. Thus :—
(c.) When the he (etc.) is emphatic, then οὗτος or ἐκεῖνος, the Demonstratives, are used.
Thus much about the Nominative of the Third Personal Pronoun. The Oblique Cases are simple: for whenever a word is required at all (which is less often than in English), the oblique cases of atrés are used. A few instinces will suffice :—
When to use it and when to omit it, the learner can only find out by practice; but he is certain at first to put it in a great deal too often, since the Pronoun is commoner in English than in Greek.
αὐτός is a puzzling word for the beginner, owing to its various uses, for ‘self,’ ‘him,’ and ‘the same.’ It is necessary for him to go fully into the matter, and constantly refer to the explanation and examples, until he is familiar with them.
(1.) ‘The same’ is always ὁ αὐτός; the Article coming before αὐτός, Thus :—
(2.) ‘Self’ (if it is not reflexive) is αὐτός without the Article before it. Thus :—
(3.) If i is reflexive [1.e. if it refers to the same person as the subject to the verb, and is in an oblique case, and is not a subject itself] use ἑαυτοῦ (ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ), or the less formal οὗ, οὗ, ἔ; and in plural, σφῶν, or σφῶν αὐτῶν, or ἑαυτῶν (ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ὑμῶν αὐτῶν). Thus :—
(4.) αὐτός in the oblique cases is also used for the cases of ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘it,’ ‘they,’ as we have seen above in treating of the Pronouns, § 15.
Note 1.—It should be, however, observed, that in English we do not always say ‘himself,’ but often simply ‘him’ (‘her,’ ‘it,’ etc.), even where the Pronoun is really reflexive.
Thus :—
Note 2.—Often again, where in English ‘his,’ etc., is used reflexive, and where’ we ,might say in Greek ‘of himself,’ ἑαυτοῦ, it is enough, if no stress is laid on the Pronoun, to use the Article simply. Thus :—
See fuller explanation in § 21.
The beginner should be cautioned about the use of the English ‘it,’ a Pronoun which stands for every inanimate Substantive and most animals. In Greek, on the contrary, the Pronoun has naturally to be of the gender of the Noun for which it stands.
He left the gold, for he knew it [χρυσὸς, Masculine] would be
safe.
… τοῦτον ἀσφαλῆ ἐσόμενον.
The dove approached : he pulled it in [περιστερὰ, Feminine].
… εἰςήγαγεν αὐτήν.
With the exception treated below, the Possessive Pronouns are used pretty much as in English. It is only necessary to mention that there is no Possessive for the third person, and accordingly the Genitive of the Personal Pronoun is used instead, αὐτοῦ, αὐτῆς, αὐτῶν, or, if reflexive, ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτῶν. The others are ἐμός (mine), σός (thine), ὑμέτερος (yours), ἡμέτερος (ours). Thus :—-
Observe that the Article is used with the Possessives (ἐμός, σός, etc.), except where the Substantive with the Possessive is a predicate, i.e. comes after the verb ‘to be.’
§ 21. Note.—The exception alluded to above is this. In English the Possessive occurs much oftener than in Greek : it is used with no emphasis at all, where there could be no doubt (if it were omitted) whose the thing was. In such a case as that, it is usual in Greek to employ the Article only.
For example—
[Here there is no emphasis on ‘their’: if nothing was said as to whose arms, you would naturally assume they took their own : and accordingly in Greek it would be more usual to say ‘the arms.’]
Other instances are the following, which will not need comment :—
Common sense will settle, in more complicated sentences, whether the Article or the Possessive is best. Thus :—
Because in the second the persons concerned are the same all through; in the first they are changed.
Two idiomatic uses of ἄλλος and its compounds are to be noticed.
(1.) When two are opposed, corresponding to the English use of some … others.
(2.) When we wish to use the word in a distributive sense, i.e. when we describe an indefinite number of divergent acts, courses, qualities, etc. In English we either repeat the word different, as ‘different people went different ways,’ or use a complex though accurate form of sentence, as follows :—’ One person went one way and another another.’ In Greek this is done more neatly by an idiomatic use of ἄλλος.
ὅδε is chiefly used in prose for ’ the following :’ otherwise it is used only by a speaker. Accordingly, when you say ‘this,’ meaning what is coming, you use in Greek ὅδε (or similar compounds, τοιόςδε, τοσόςδε, τηλικόςδε) : when you say ‘this,’ meaning what has gone before, you must employ οὗτος (or similar compounds, τοιοῦτος, τοσοῦτος, etc.). Thus :—
τοιοῦτος is often used in Greek where in English another adjective might occur, especially where the sense of the adjective has been given before, or where τοσοῦτος is used with it.
The learner is puzzled at first often by the English word what, owing to its being both relative [= ‘that which’], and interrogative [ = ‘what?’ ].
The best rule is to stop and think whether the sentence remains the same in meaning after substituting ‘that which’ for ‘what.’ If so, a Relative is required. Otherwise it will be an Interrogative. [Sometimes either will make sense, and then it clearly does not matter. ]
The relative ‘what’ may also be done with Article and Participle. See § 5.
When the Gender, Case, Mood, etc., of one word of a sentence is altered from what it would naturally be to suit the Gender, Case, Mood, etc., of some other word or words, such alteration is said to be due to attraction.
There are many forms of attraction in Greek, the commonest being the attraction of the Relative.
(1.) When the antecedent is in the Genitive or Dative, and the Relative would naturally be in Accusative, Attraction often takes place, i.e. the Relative may be put into the same case as the Antecedent.
(2.) This is still more frequent and idiomatic when the Antecedent is ’a mere Pronoun, which can be omitted. See § 25 (2).
When the Subject is a Pronoun (this, that, etc.), and the Predicate a Substantive, the Subject is commonly attracted in Greek into the gender of the Predicate. Thus in English, if we were to say, ‘this is a stone,’ we should have no difficulty, as there are no genders concerned; but in translating into Greek we should perhaps at first be disposed to put ‘this’ neuter, meaning ‘this thing.’ The Greek idiom, however, is to make the gender of ‘this’ agree by attraction with the gender of ‘stone.’ Examples :—
The Distributive Pronouns ἑκάτερος and ἕκαστος have a special usage which arises from the nature of the word. A Plural Nominative is, so to speak, distributed into its component parts, and thus grammatically ἕκαστος appears in apposition with a plural. And as in Latin suus and quisque have a tendency to be close together, so in Greek ἕκαστος and ἑαυτοῦ. Thus :—
If the sentence is of any length (or even sometimes in short sentences), the Verb is singular to agree with ἕκαστος.
Just as in the case of the Article we have seen that the Adjective is used with Article in the neuter, where in English generally some Substantive is employed, so frequently the Adjective (or Pronoun) is used in the neuter (whether with or without Article), where in English Substantives are required. This is especially the case where the Substantive is of kindred meaning (cognate) with the Verb.
We have seen that if the Adjective has not the Article and the Substantive has, the Adjective is used with a predicative meaning, as—
This is obvious enough in the Nominative; but in Greek this predicative use of the Adjective without Article is extended also to other cases (known as Tertiary Predicate).
So where in English the predicative form is not used: often in speaking of qualities or parts of the body :—
So again, where the adjective describes rather the result of the action (proleptic), which in English may be expressed variously :—
There is a special idiom in the construction οὗ δῆλος and φανερός, also due to attraction. See ὃ 26.
In English we say, ‘It is evident that you are ill;’ ‘that-you-are-ill’ being logically the subject of the verb ‘is-evident.’ In Greek, however, the person is made the subject, and the sentence becomes ‘You are evident being ill,’ or δῆλος εἶ νοσῶν, In the following examples the English is purposely varied :—-
When ‘many’ is used with another adjective, in Greek — often καὶ is inserted between the two: we say in English ‘many wonderful laws;’ in Greek they say ‘many and wonderful.’ As—
So again with the adjective ‘great’ :—
§ 34. The use of the Cases will be best learnt by degrees, through the process of finding what each word governs, and so fixing the general principles in the mind. But it may be of some use to the learner to give a few general hints about them, to which he can refer from time to time.
The Nominative is used exactly as in English, or any other language, as the subject of the verb. No rule is required.
After Passives, Substantive Verbs, etc., it is used exactly as in Latin. Thus :—
In one use only does Greek differ from other inflected languages with regard to the Nominative, and that is in what is called the Nominative Attraction. When in a clause of oratio obliqua the subject is the same as that of the principal verb, it is Nominative and not (as in Latin) Accusative. Thus :—
So with Participles —
For the principle which determines whether Infinitive or Participle is to be used, see below, § 40.
To understand fully all the uses of the Genitive case requires a long and difficult study, which it would be out of place to ’pursue here, but the learner may be helped even in the early stages by noticing the main usages,
(a.) Genitive of aim.
On this principle most verbs of aiming at, feeling after, desiring, perceiving (taste, smell, touch, listen to), etc., have the Genitive.
Such also is the special use of τοῦ μὴ to express the object of a verb or act :—
(b.) Connected with this is the Genitive of respect or reference, a large class: the English uses corresponding are very various, being rendered by the prepositions ‘in regard to,’ ‘in respect of,’ ‘for,’ ‘in,’ and very commonly ‘of.’ It describes the point in which the Verb or Adjective employed is applicable.
So with many words describing ‘emptiness’ or ‘fulness,’ as πένεσθαι, πλουτεῖν, πληρὴς, κενός, δεῖ, ἐνδεής, δεῖσθαι, πίμπλασθαι, γέμειν, etc.
So special idioms, like
So also after many words which in English are transitive, and take Accusative, but in Greek are intransitive, and take Genitive to describe the thing or respect in which the Verb applies.
Such words are φείδομαι (spare), κρατεῖν (govern), ἔχεσθαι (clasp), λανθάνομαι (forget), ἀμελεῖν (neglect), ἐπιμελεῖσθαι (nanage).
The Adjectives and Substantives corresponding to such words will naturally govern the same case.
So Prepositions describing local relation :—
(c.) Connected with this again are a variety of usages expressing relations between Substantives, such as are in Latin already familiar as rendered by Genitive, and in English are given mostly by ’ of.’
Examples of the leading kinds under this head :—
So with Verbs describing partition, as μετέχειν (shure), μεταλαβεῖν (partake of), συμβάλλομαι (contribute to).
(d.) The Genitive is used after Comparatives, where we use ’than.”2 Here it corresponds to Latin ablative. Example :—
(e.) The Genitive is used (like the Latin ablative) to express separation or motion ‘from.’
So with words meaning ‘to cease from,’ ‘to change from,’ ‘to keep aloof from,’ etc., ἀπὸ στερεῖν (to deprive), ἁμαρτάνειν (to miss): and all prepositions meaning ‘from,’ or ’ without,’ or ‘out of,’ ἀπό, ἄνευ, δίχα, ἐκ, πρός (at hands of), παρά (from side of).
So also origin.
And after a Negative it corresponds to English for.
So
(g.) With a Participle, as Genitive absolute.
(h.) Of Price.
How much is this sold for?
πόσου τάδε πωλεῖται;
I have not the wherewithal to buy it.
οὐκ ἔχω οὖ
ὠνήσομαι.
These are the main heads: but the details of the special usages of the Genitive, what Verbs and Prepositions govern it, must be learnt by slowly gathored experience.
(a.) The common use, as the object of Transitive Verbs.
This is so familiar from Latin and other languages that no more need be said.. So Prepositions of motion to, πρός, ἐς. παρά (to beside), ἐπί (like English ’ on to’), ὑπό (to under).
(b.) To express extent of space or time (like Latin).
So, Prepositions which have notion of movement along :— παρὰ, alongside of, and metaphorically aside of, contrary to. κατὰ, down along, and metaphorically according to, opposite to. ἀνὰ, up along, and metaphorically according w. περὶ, round along, and metaphorically concerned with.
(c.) Cognate (like Latin).
So, without substantive :—
(d.) Respect (also like Latin).
It will be observed with regard to this last usage that the Dative is used in a very similar way; and in many cases either would do to express the sense equally well.
(a.) Time: ‘at,’ or ‘on.’
Somewhat similar are ἐν τούτῳ, ἐν ᾧ, meanwhile, whilst.
(6.) After ordinary Verbs, of person or things affected, like English ‘to,’ and Latin Dative.
Also (like Genitive) with Verbs which in English are transitive, where in Greek the Dative describes the person affected.
(c.) Ethic: of person affected, where, however, the sentence is grammatically complete without it.
This usage also familiar in Latin.
(d.) Of the instrument, after any Verb or Adjective.
(e.) Of the manner.
(f.) Often of the ’ point in which,’ or ‘respect.’
So ἔργῳ, λόγῳ, γνώῤῃ, ἴσχνι, προφάσει, etc.
(g.) So again, as in Latin and English, of nearness and likeness, etc., after such words as
On this principle the Dative follows words like—I am present (πάρειμι), I live with (παροικῶ), and prepositions describing proximity of various kinds.
After Passives or Verbs ‘to be,’ ’ to become,’ ’ to appear,’ the construction of the person is continued unbroken; i.e. Adjectives or Predicate Substantives are in the same case as the foregoing Substantive or Pronoun. This construction is familiar from Latin. The rule given, § 34, about the Nominative, is clearly only a special case of this—
In many cases the Accusative-Infinitive construction is substituted. Thus you can say—
Besides the prolate use of the Infinitive, which is common in all languages, 6.6. after Verbs like ‘I wish,’ ‘I learn,’ ‘I can,’ ‘I purpose,’ and Adjectives like ‘able,’ ’ easy,’ ’ eager,’ there are other uses of the Infinitive in Greek not corresponding to the English idiom. A few of the chief examples are given below.
Prolate, but where English idiom is different.
After Verbs of saying and thinking, ‘that’ in English is often translated literally into Greek by ὅτι; but often also the idiom of the Accusative and Infinitive is employed as in Latin; the learner will be already familiar with it.
Only observe, if the subject of the Infinitive Verb is the same as the subject of the principal Verb, it is Nominative, not Accusative.
Note.—After Verbs of feeling and knowing, a Participle is used instead of Infinitive. See § 51 and § 34 above.
The Article is used with the Infinitive, where we use an abstract-substantive or a periphrasis. It has been all explained above on the Article, § 8.
There are certain special uses of verbs with the Infinitive which have to be learnt, as they could not be inferred from English, or from general principles of grammar. For example :—
[Compare Participial use :—
I know I am doing. ἐπίσταμαι
δρῶν.]
[Compare Participial use :—
I am proved to be doing tt.
φαίνομαι δρῶν.]
§ 43. The Participle is used much more in Greek than in modern English, and, though the uses of it are easy and natural, even the simplest narrative is so improved by properly employing it, that the point deserves careful attention.
We should first notice some special uses of the Participle with other verbs, where the Greek idiom differs from the English.
The ordinary idiomatic uses include a variety of clauses, where the Participle has very different effects upon the meaning; sometimes it gives a relation of time, sometimes of cause, sometimes of instrument, and so forth.
The case of the Participle naturally varies. Sometimes it agrees with the Substantive which is the subject or object of the sentence; sometimes, where the subject is changed, it will naturally be in the Genitive Absolute. The learner will be familiar with this principle from Latin, where the ablative is so used absolute; or if not, the examples will make it quite clear.
(1.) Where two or more actions are related, and in English Principal Verbs are used, and the verbs are connected by ’ and.’
So Genitive Absolute, with subject changed :—
(2.) Where in English Participles are employed, but often with prepositions, as on, after, in, or conjunctions, as wihile, when, the tense is determined by the sense; see Tenses,
So Genitive Absolute, with new subject :—
(3.) Where in English Subordinate Verbs are used with Conjunctions, as when, while, as.
So with Genitive Absolute, subject changed :—
(4.) Where in English Abstract Substantives are used with Prepositions.
So with Genitive Absolute, subject changed :—
In English a variety of ways adopted to express it, the commonest being a Participle, with the Preposition by, through. He did it by employing. ἐποίησε χρώμενος.
The Comparison is commonly made in English by a clause with a Subordinate Verb, the clause being introduced by as, as if, as though. In Greek, ὡς or ὥσπερ would be used with Participle.
So Genitive Absolute, with change of subject :—
So Genitive Absolute, with change of subject :—
In English, often a variety of expressions may be turned with ws and the causal participle, such as alleging, on the understanding that, on the plea that, imagining that.
The Future Participle is used in Greek to express purpose, often with ws, sometimes with the Article.
Often the Participial Clause stands for a supposition : the Participle often being followed not unnaturally by the enclitic γε, which means ‘at least.’
So Genitive Absolute, with changed subject :—
N.B.—In this use the Negative is μή.
Where in English we use ‘though’ and a verb, in Greek often the Participle and καίπερ, ‘even,’ is used, referring to a noun or pronoun already in the sentence, with no alteration of the case.
So Genitive Absolute, with subject changed :—
§ 51. Observe also that a Participle is used for the dependent clause after verbs of knowing and feeling (just as Infinitives are used for dependent clauses after verbs of saying and thinking). See § 40.
And the same rule holds here too, that the Nominative is used and not the Accusative, where the subject, of the two clauses is the same.
The Participle (especially ὦν, being) is sometimes required in Greek where in English it is omitted altogether. This is chiefly in appositions, or where an attributive or descriptive sentence is added to a Substantive, as is often done in English without any Participle or Verb. The examples will make this more clear.
[In many cases of apposition the clause can be turned in Greek eifher with Article or with Participle, as—
There is a little point with reference to the use of Relative and Participle which needs clearing up, as confusing rules are sometimes given about it. Compare these two sentences :—
In (1) the relative clause who was ill is part of what is told about the Boeotian, i.e. practically part of the predicate.
In (2) the relative clause is part of the attribute, i.e. belongs to the subject.
Accordingly in Greek the two sentences become—
Βοιωτῶ τινί καὶ Μεγαρεῖ? ἐνέτυχον· ὁ δὲ Βοιωτὸς, νόσον ἔχων, μόλις ἐδύνατο βαδίζειν.
Βοιωτοῖν δυοῖν ἐνέτυχον, τῷ μὲν εὖ ἔχοντι τῷδὲ ἑτέρῳ νοσοῦντι· ὁ δὲ Βοιωτὸς ὁ νόσων ἔχων μόλις ἐδύνατο βαδίζειν.
§ 54. There are tenses in Greek corresponding to most (though not all) of the English tenses, and in the Grammars, from which we first learn Greek, the corresponding English tenses are given as equivalents for the Greek tenses. But as in several points the idiom or usage differs, the learner is often misled by such translations in the Grammar. It is necessary, therefore, to consider these idiomatic usages in detail; and as we are here proceeding from English to Greek, the clearest method seems to be to take the English tenses in order, and see what becomes of them in Greek.
We have here two tenses, e.g. ‘I learn,’ and ‘I am learning,’ the former being an act (either single or repeated), and the latter a process or extended act.
Both are usually represented by the Greek Present Indicative.
Note, however, that sometimes when the act spoken of is just over, English uses the Present when Greek prefers the Aorist. Thus we often find—
This is the same in Greek as in English.
Note, however, that the English Imperfect is sometimes due to oratio obliqua; the tense being really Present if the statement or question were put directly instead of indirectly. In this case the Greek does not change the tense from what it would be in oratio recta. Thus :—
He said that he was sick. (What he said was, ‘I am sick.’)
ἔλεξεν ὅτι νοσεῖ.3
I asked why he was sick. (What I asked was, ‘Why are you
sick’?)
ἠρόμην τί νοσεῖ.4
Greeks use Perfect much less and Aorist much more than we do: the Perfect in English therefore often corresponds to the Aorist in Greek, chiefly when there is no emphasis on the effect still lαsting. ’Thus :—
(2.) The English use Perfect sometimes where Greeks use Present; namely, when describing a pust state extending up to the present.
In speaking of past things (telling stories, narrating history, etc.), the Pluperfect is often required in English to describe the events of a point of time still further back than the one with which the sentence is chiefly concerned. In Greek, the common idiom is far less precise in the matter of time; both events being past, both are commonly Aorist or Imperfect. A few illustrations will show this.
So constantly after ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, when, after that, the Aorist is used where we use Pluperfect.
So again the English Pluperfect is often due to orativ dbliqua (see § 55): and it stands for a Perfect in oratio recta; the Greek tense will therefore still in many cases (§ 56) be Aorist, since oratio obliqua does not in Greek alter tenses,
Thus, turning the clauses in § 56 into the oblique :—
The English Past Tense corresponds commonly to the Greek Aorist, and then there is no difficulty; but also sometimes it is used where in Greek the Imperfect would be more natural. It is easy to turn the Tenses correctly if we remember that the Aorist in Greek expresses the Act, the Imperfect the Process or the Hubit. Not unfrequently either will do, as the act may be regarded, on the one hand, merely as an act without reference to its duration, or, on the other, stress may be laid on its taking time.
| Aorist. | |
|---|---|
| Having said this he went away. I came, I saw, I conquered. | ταῦτα εἰπὼν ἀπεχώρησε. ἦλθον, εἶδον, ἐνίκησα. |
| Imperfiect. | |
| I negotiated with the Athenians while he conversed thus. | ἔπρασσον πρὸς τοὺς Ἀθηναίους ἕως τοιαῦτα διελέγετο. |
| I went to sophists to learn philosophy. | παρὰ σοφιστὰς ἐφοίτων ἵνα φιλοσοφίαν μάθοιμι. |
| He paid me every week my salary. | δι’ ἑπτὰ ἡμερῶν ἀπεδίδου μοι τὸν μισθόν. |
The Imperfect in Greck, describing the protracted or extended process in the past, is often also used for a commenced or attempted action, and so may correspond to a variety of English expressions, some of which are given here.
The Aorist is used sometimes to describe not merely the Act as opposed to the State, but the act as an entrance into the state. Thus compare the two Verbs contrasted in the following pairs :—
| He was ill. | ἐνόσει. |
| He fell ill. | ἐνόσησε. |
| He was afraid. | ἐφοβεῖτο. |
| He became alarmed. | ἐφοβήθη. |
| He was prosperous. | εὐτύχει. |
| He rose to prosperity. | εὐτύχησε. |
A common mistake is made by beginners in supposing the Aorist Infinitive to describe a past action. This is only so where the Infinitive is in oblique statement (oratio obliqua), and stands for a Finite Verb.
Thus, he said that he came (or had come) is ἔφη ἐλθεῖν.
But in sentences like I wish to know, able to conquer, so as to find, it is quite as good Greek to use Aorist as Present, and we might naturally say βούλομαι γνῶναι, δυνατὸς νικῆσαι, ὥστε εὑρεῖν, no less than γιγνώσκειν, νικᾶν, and εὑρίσκειν.
After ὑπισχνεῖσθαι, to promise, ἐλπίζω, to hope, μέλλω, to be going, the Future Infinitive is often used in Greek. See § 42.
In all these three Moods the Greeks have two tenses corresponding to the English one. Thus :—
| Learn this. | μάνθανε τοῦτο. | Imper. |
| μαθὲ τοῦτο. | ||
| In order that I may learn. | ἵνα μανθάνω. | Subj. |
| ἵνα μάθω. | ||
| In order that I might learn. | ἵνα μανθάνοιμι. | Opt. |
| ἵνα μάθοιμι. |
The distinction between the Present and Aorist in each of these pairs is a very fine one (Aorist, expressing the act; Present, extended act or process), and as it is not observed in English it need not be attended to in the early stages of composition.
But the learner should get into the habit of remembering the existence of the Aorists when he has such clauses to translate, and using them as well as the Present.
The Aorist in the Participle and Infinitive is for practical convenience treated separately, though the principle of the usage is the same. See §61,
The Present Passive in English corresponds to two different Greek tenses according to circumstances, the Present and the Perfect.
(1.) Where is-done means is being done or is repeatedly done, the Present is used.
(2.) Where is-done means 1s already done, use the Perfect.
So ‘was done’ in English may mean three things :—
(1.) ‘Was being done’ or ‘was often done.’ Greek Imperfect.
(2.) ‘Was done,’ single act: in Greek use the Aorist.
(3.) ‘Was already done,’ ‘were previously done:’ in Greek use the Pluperfect.
There are two Future Passives in Greek :—
(1.) Aorist Future, formed from Aorist (first and second Future).
(2.) Perfect Future, formed from Perfect (paulo-post-futurum, or third Future).
The difference between them corresponds to the difference between the Perfect and Aorist; Perfect describing the state, Aorist the act. Thus :—
| I shall be abandoned. | λειφθήσομαι. |
| I shall find myself alone or bereft. | λελείψομαι. |
| I shall get a beating. | τυφθήσομαι. |
| I shall be black and blue. | τετύψομαι. |
| I shall be set free. | λυθήσομαι. |
| I shall be free. | λελύσομαι. |
Often in English the simple Future is used for both, with exactly the same ambiguity that we have noticed in the Present and Past of the Passive voice. The student will, however, find no difficulty if he will always think of the sense, and ask the simple question, Does it describe the future act or the future state?
If the ships go out, the treaty will be broken.
[Act]
λυθήσονται αἱ σπονδαί,
By the time you get home the treaty will be broken.
[State]
λελύσονται.
When he dies he shall be buried.
[Act] ταφήσεται.
Leave him here; he will be buried among his kindred.
[State] τεθάψεται.
We should observe that in Greek there are two Participles, the Perfect and Aorist, both of which are translated usually in Grammars, etc., by the English Perfect Participle, as, e.g. δράσας and δεδρακώς : both are rendered ‘having done.’ The learner, therefore, needs some hints, in doing English into Greek, as to which he is to use.
The fact is, δράσας describes the mere act of doing, δεδρακώς the state of having done; and which we use will, therefore, depend on the meaning of the English. Thus :—
| Aorist. | |
| Having shut the door, he went out. | κλείσας τὴν θύραν ἐξῆλθε. |
| Having been struck, he defended himself. | πληγεὶς ἠμύνατο. |
| Having prepared his plan, he marched. | παρασκευασάμενος τὸ βούλευμα ἐπορεύετο. |
| The girl fell wounded. | τρωθεῖσα κατέπεσεν ἡ κόρη. |
But—
| Perfect. | |
| Having been brought up softly. | μαλθακῶς τεθραμμένος. |
| Having suffered many years much outrage. | πολλὰ ἔτη δεινότατα πεπονθώς. |
| Twenty years old. | εἰκόσιν ἔτη γεγονώς. |
| He came with his mind madeup. | βεβουλευμένος ἦλθε. |
| We found the girl wounded. | εὕρομεν τὴν κόρην τετρωμενην. |
[On the same principle, always Perfect when qualities, or personal description is given. ]
| Inclined to drunkenness. | πρὸς μέθην τετραμμένος. |
| Shod in Persian slippers. | Περσικὰς ὑποδεδεμένος. |
On the other hand, the Greek Present Participle may be used where in English we should use the Past. This will follow from the same principle mentioned before, namely that in Greck the
Therefore if we say, ‘After having learnt music ten years, he was still ignorant’ (the act being extended), the Participle in Greek will naturally be Present, and it will run, ἔτη δέκα μανθάνων τὴν μουσικὴν ἔτι ἠγνόει.
So in the following examples :—
In this case, however, the Present Participle usually has some word to mark the time, like πρότερον, ποτέ, πολὺν χρόνον, etc.
Observe, that in ordinary narrative, where there are two acts, and the first is described by a Participle, the second by a Principal Verb, the first in Greek is Aorist.
In English we often use the Present Participle for this, as will be seen from the examples :—
If we used the Present Participle in Greek it would mean ‘while he was taking, coming,’ etc., since the Present implies an act extended in time, the Aorist an act simply. This principle being understood, the learner will soon discern those cases where either tense may be used, and those where they will more naturally be one or the other.
In the following kind of cases both will occur :—
It is not my intention in this book to enter into the difficult syntax of the Optative, or the complications of the Conditional Sentence; but the use of ἄν with the Optative and Indicative may be readily learnt, even at an early stage, from one or two instances,
Where in English we say ‘I would or should do,’ in Greek is used the Optative (Present or Aorist) with the Particle ἄν, and where we say ‘I would or should have done,’ in Greek is used Indicative (Aorist) with av.
(1.) Optative.
(2.) Indicative.
Observe that ἂν never comes first, and never in an emphatic place.
ἵνα, ὥς, and ὅπως are used in Greek to express purpose. The mood is either Subjunctive or Optative, according to the tense of the principal verb; in fact the sequence varies as in Latin, only that it is a sequence of mvod and not of tense.
| I come | ||
| Primary. | I shall come | in order that I may find. |
| I have come | ||
| ἀφικνοῦμαι | ||
| ἀφίξομαι | εὑρίσκω or εὕρω. | |
| ἀφῖγμαι | ||
| I came | ||
| Historic. | was coming | in order that I might find. |
| I had come | ||
| ἀφικόμην | ||
| ἀφικνούμην | ἵνα εὑρίσκοιμι or εὕροιμι. | |
| ἀφίγμην |
If there is a negative after the ἵνα or ws, it is μή, not οὐ.
When a statement is quoted or related, the Greeks use either εἶπεν ὅτι, or εἶπε with Accusative Infinitive (oratio obliqua).
If the exact words are given (oratio recta), it is common to use the slightest word, namely, ἔφη, and to put one or two words of the quoted passage first, and then ἔφη. Thus :—
In English, a word in a sentence often gets emphasis by the use of the expression i is, it was, when in Greek (as in Latin) the emphasis can be quite as clearly and much more neatly given by the position of the word. Thus :—
One caution is required in doing Greek composition about Adverbs of Place.
In English we often use there, here, where, not only after Verbs of rest, where they are legitimate, but also after Verbs of motion, where they stand for the more correct thither, hither, whither. In Greek this license is never allowed, and the learner must be on his guard therefore.
There are a great variety of ways of asking questions in Greek, corresponding to the number of Interrogative Particles. The principal are given below.
(1.) No Particle.
(2.) οὐ, οὔκουν, dp’ οὐ, πῶς οὔ (the latter especially used where the question is impatient or indignant).
(3.) ἄλλο τι, ἄλλο τι ἤ.
(4.) μῶν, μὴ, ἄρα μή, μῶν μή.
(5.) πότερον (alternative questions chiefly; but often in simple questions, since they can always be put alternatively : Is it so or not?).
Shall you conquer or not?
πότερον νικήσεις αὐτόν, ἡ
OV;
Will they dispute this?
πότερον τοῦτο
ἀμφισβητήσουσι;
Of these, (2) and (3) expect answer ’ yes;’ in (4) answer is negative or doubtful; in (1) and (5) answer is doubtful.
I have said nothing about interrogatives like ris, πότε, ποῦ, πῶς, etc., as there is no difficulty with these.
The Greek being more lively than English, dramatic particles are often inserted in Greek where in English none are used. Such particles are δή, apa, and the following instances from the Exercises will illustrate the difference between the languages :—
Sometimes they stand in a lively way for a word like alleged, supposed, in English.
When a sentence contains two clauses opposed or antithetic to each other, it is customary to mark this antithesis clearly in Greek, by putting μέν with the first and δέ with the second.
In English we do this sometimes by particles :—
sometimes with only one, or even no particle at all. Thus it is necessary for the learner to be on his guard, that he may not omit the μέν and δέ when they are required. Examples :—
[One omitted. ]
[Both omitted. ]
There are two Negatives, οὐ and μή, usually distinguished as οὐ negative of Statement, μή negative of Conception. The ᾿ definition becomes intelligible by looking at the usage.
(1.) οὐ, Negative Statement.
(2.) μή, Negative Conception.
| Purpose, | That I might not do. | ἴνα μὴ δράσαιμι. |
| Prohibition, | Don’t do. | μὴ δρᾶ. |
| Petition. | Ι forbid to do. | ἀπαγορεύω μὴ δρᾶν. |
| Ι ought not to do it. | χρὴ μὴ δρᾶν (or by (1) οὐ χρὴ). |
So with βούλομαι, δεῖ, ὤφελον, etc.
| Generic. | Those who were not there. | οἱ μὴ παρόντες. |
| Dishonourable things. | τὰ μὴ καλά. | |
| Condition. | Ιf you are not ill. | εἰ μὴ νοσεῖς. |
| You are wrong not to do this. | ἁμαρτάνεις μὴ ποιῶν τάδε. |
Most of the other uses of μὴ will be learnt later.
In Greek the idiom of the Negatives differs so far from the idiom in English, that all the Indefinite words following a negative are also themselves negative. Thus :—
The words thus used are chiefly the following :—
| nobody | οὐδείς. |
| never | οὔποτε. |
| nowhere | οὐδαμοῦ. |
| from nowhere | οὐδαμόθεν. |
| to nowhere | οὐδαμόσε. |
| nohow | οὔπως. |
| not yet | οὔπω. |
If μή is required in the first negative, the others will all begin with μή :—
So ‘even’ after negative becomes in Greek not even, οὐδέ.
For the help of the beginner, it may be useful to tabulate the various ways in which the word ‘that’ is used, and the corresponding Greek words or idioms.
(1.) Demonstrative (ἐκεῖνος, or sometimes οὗτος).
(2.) Relative (ὅς or ὅσπερ).
(3.) Conjunction.
(Both (a) and (b) can also be done with ὅτι, only be careful about tenses, § 64.)
The beginner is always puzzled with οὔτε and οὐδέ difference between them is this :—
When two negative clauses are on the same footing, and you start with an intention to make both denials, you then use in English Neither … nor, and in Greek you use οὔτε … οὔτε.
When, however, you begin with one negative clause standing alone, and then add another, in English you use not . . . nor, and in Greek οὐκ… οὐδέ.
The same is true of μήτε, μηδέ.
We will suppose the learner to have mastered the Article ὁ ἡ τό and the first two Declensions, namely, the A Declensionσ, with its five forms (all very like), say—
| Masculines. | Feminines. |
| νεανίας | κριτής | χώρα | τιμή | μοῦσα |
Also the O Declension, both Simple and Contracted; for example—
| Simple. | Contracted. |
| λόγος | δῶρον | νόος–νοῦς | ὀστέον—ὀστοῦν |
with the Attic Declension, as λεώς, ἀνώγεων.
These declensions are the first two in most Grammars; and the advantage of dividing them thus, and calling them A and O Declensions, is that the reason of the differences in termination is then so clearly seen.
With these should be learnt the Adjectives which follow these declensions, namely, for example—
and the contracted forms, χρυσέος, ἀργυρέος (-οῦς).
These really add nothing to the trouble, for they simply follow the three genders of the Substantive.
Also should be learnt ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, exactly like σοφός (except 6 neuter), and οὗτος, ὅδε, ἐκεῖνος, τοσοῦτος, τοιοῦτος, and αὐτός, all very like each other.
Then we are ready to begin our first Exercises.
In order to enable the learner at once to make whole sentences, which is much less wearisome than doing meaningless fragments, the principal parts of the verb ‘to be’ are here given, to be used in the Exercises.
| I am, εἰμί. | I was, ἦν. |
| Thou art, εἶ. | Thou wast, ἦσθα. |
| He, she, it, there—is, ἐστί, | He, she, it, there—was, ἦν. |
| We are, ἐσμέν. | We were, ἦμεν. |
| You are, ἐστέ. | You were, ἦτε. |
| There are, they are, εἰσί, | There were, they were, ἦσαν. |
| I shall be, ἔσομαι. |
| Thou wilt be, ἔσει. |
| He, she, it, there—will be, ἔσται. |
| We shall be, ἐσόμεθα. |
| You will be, ἔσεσθε. |
| There will be, they will be, ἔσονται. |
| To be, εἶναι. |
Note.—The rarely-required Dual is omitted at present, in order to avoid needless trouble.
ἐστί and εἰσί are written ἐστίν and εἰσίν before a vowel or a full stop.
Occasionally throughout the Exercises a few words will be given which the learner has not yet reached in the Grammar. The sentences will thus be more varied, and so less tiresome; and it will do him no harm to become familiarised in a natural and easy way with the look of some of the commoner words.
Note.—In the vocabularies the following signs are used :—
| a. accusative. | m. masculine. |
| d. dative. | f. feminine. |
| g. genitive. | n. neuter. |
† denotes that the word cannot come first after a stop.
It is now midday, and the sun is very hot. The shade of the trees is cool, and the lake is beautiful. I see (ὁρῶ, acc.) many swans, which are bright and white. The neck of that5 swan is long, but the left wing seems (δοκεῖ, with inf.) to be small.6 I do not know (οἶδα, acc.) the cause of this. Perhaps there is a bad disease in this wing. Perhaps a bone of this swan was broken (δι-ερράγη) by a stone. There is a small boat on the lake.
There are three sailors in that boat. The clothes of these7 sailors are? red. The young sailor has (ἔχει, acc.) a sail on his8 shoulder. Another is asleep (καθεύδει), but the third is by the rudder. This (one) does not see (ὁρᾷ, acc.) the terrible danger, for there is a rock in the lake. And this9 rock is hard, and will be the cause of death to many. Now they are close to the place, and I am pale from fear. I turn away (ἀποτρέπω, acc.)10 my eyes. Behold, they are out of the danger, and from joy tears are in my eyes.
This horse is mine. Before11 he was strong, but now he is very thin and poor. And the cause of this I will tell (λέξω, acc.). Those farmers to whom I intrusted (ἐπέτρεπον, acc.) him were very faithless. They stole (ἔκλεπτον, acc.) the corn of the horse. But the device is good which I have (ἔχω, acc.), for I put (ἔθηκα, acc.) stones into the manger. The horse eating (ἐσθίων, acc.) the corn spits out (ἀποπτύει, acc.) the stones. But the farmers steal (κλέπτουσι, acc.) the corn with the stones. In this way12 it is easy to find out (ἐξ-ευρεῖν, acc.) the deceit. The farmers therefore will no longer be bad. For the penalty to them will be dreadful and severe.
Already the army is in the camp, and the fleet by the shore of this island. The enemy are on the hill, which is opposite to our camp. To-morrow, perhaps, there will be a battle: for they appear (δοκοῦσι) to be prepared.13 But this14 is the plan of our general. For now everything is dark, and the fires of the enemy are few. Accordingly it will not be difficult for our soldiers to go (ἐλθεῖν) secretly to them, and cut off (ἀποτεμεῖν, acc.) the heads of many. And thus to-morrow few will be alive, and the victory will be ours.
There is a ditch in this field, and it has (ἔχει, acc.) very much (πλεῖστος, superlative) mud. But of the many horses which are here, one seems (δοκεῖ, inf.) to be in dreadful danger. For he stands (éornxe) near, on the very ditch itself.15 Alas, now he is in the middle of the16 mud. And the others are in a difficulty, and will not be able to pull out (ἐξέλκειν, acc.) their companion. For this the master alone is able to do (ποιεῖν, acc.), who is at home. But among the horses is one, who is far wiser (σοφώτερος) than (gen.) the others. And he runs (τρέχει) to the house, and with his head17 strikes (παίει, acc.) the door. And thus the mischief is plain to the master, and he pulls (ἐξέλκει, acc.) out the horse.
The Indians are bad persons: for they honour (τιμῶσι, acc.) liars and thieves. And there was a certain master who had (to whom there was) a golden brick: and the value of the gold was marvellous. And a certain slave of those18 in the house stole (ἔκλεψε, acc.) the brick: but the thief was unknown to the master. But there was a wise judge in the country: and he by this device found out (ἐξεῦρε, acc.) everything.
For the slaves were around him, being collected together. And there was very great fear of the judge. And he spoke (εἶπε, acc.) this word: ‘The thief has (ἔχει, acc.) a feather on his19 head.’ And the others20 were quiet, but the thief quickly shook (ἐτίναξε, acc.) his head, and so was manifest to the slaves and to the judge.
My brother has (use ἐστί) a she-goat, which he found (εὗρε, acc.) in a wonderful way.21 For there is a rock not far from the house, and in this rock a large cavern under the earth. And my brother was once in the cavern, and being weighed down (βαρυνόμενος) by sleep he lay (ἔκειτο) for22 a long time quiet. But suddenly he saw (εἶδε, acc.) bright eyes through the darkness. And he was in great fear. For the wolf has such eyes,23 and the country is full of wolves. But the goat meanwhile licked (ἔλειχε, acc.) the fingers of his left (hand), and he had no longer any24 fear.
In this wood are numberless bees flying (πετόμενος) every way very-quickly. Where is the place in which the house of these is? It is probably in some one of these large trees. For often the wood is rotten, on account of the long time and the dreadful rain. And thus in the hollow [use neuter of adjective] is a cavern, which, not without trouble, has been made (πεποίηται) by the bees into (ἐς, acc.) a house. And this is wonderful, that not men are most-hateful (ἔχθιστος) to the bees, but bears. For these are like children, and they have (there is to them) a very-great desire of very-sweet things.25
Why were all-kinds-of people faithful to Cyrus, as many as were subject to his rule? Because he himself was very faithful, and always ready to give (δοῦναι, acc.) his wealth to his companions, and gifts of which each was in-need (δεόμενος, gen.), and from his friends he received in-return (ἀντελάμβανε, acc.) many things, but not so many as they from him. And sometimes the corn was scanty for the men and the fodder for the horses. And then he used-to-send (ἔπεμπε, acc.) loaves to them, and about the fodder he said (ἔφη, acc.) this: I have (use éor/) fodder, owing to the care of my slaves: I will give (δώσω) therefore to my friends: for to whom a man is dear, to him no less is his horse.
The ostrich is a strange beast : for it has wings, but is not able to fly (πέτεσθαι) with its wings. I once saw (εἶδον, acc.) something white lying (κείμενος) upon the sand: and in shape26 it was like an egg, but equal to27 a child’s head: and this was the ostrich’s egg. Now this beast is strong,28 but foolish and cowardly. For it does not come (ἔρχεται) to battle with (dat. simply) its enemies, but, from fear of the danger, flies (φεύγει). And sometimes it has (ἔχει, acc.) very terrible fear, and then it thrusts (ὠθεῖ, acc.) its head into the sand: but the rest is not hidden (adj.): but the bird is manifest to the hunters.
This29 is a fable about the wolves and the sheep, in what30 (οἷος) way the council took place (ἐγένετο) about the evils and the injustice. For the sheep suffered (ἔπασχε) dreadful things31 from the wolves: so there was no longer any32 safety for them in the country. And on account of this it was necessary to find (εὑρεῖν, acc.) some device. And a sheep there was, wiser than (gen.) the others, and he said (εἶπε, acc.) these33 things :—‘O sheep, life to us is evil owing to these34 wolves. There shall therefore be a council, and the wolves shall be present (παρέσονται), and we will persuade (πείσομεν, acc.) them to make (ποιεῖσθαι, acc.) friendship and peace with us. For I am peaceful, and the fight with35 the wolves is not dear to me.’
There was therefore a gathering of the sheep to council: and the wolves themselves also came (ἦλθον), nor were they hindered (ἐκωλύοντο) by them. And the sheep said these things :—’ We are36 in terrible danger, being worried (ἁρπαζόμενος) by the wolves. And this is unjust: so we wish (βουλόμεθα) to have (ἔχειν, acc.) some law, and thus to be more in safety.’ And the wolves said this to them :—’ There shall then be a law for you such-as-this: the sheep that is37 wronged (ἀδικούμενος) by a wolf shall bring (ἄξει, acc.) the unjust (one) before our council, and both shall have (use εἰμί, to be) their rights from us.’ And at the time38 it was delightful to the sheep: but the injustice of the wolves became (ἐγένετο) not at all less.
Pigeons are sensible, and very clever at-carrying (inf. φέρειν, acc.) letters. This they do (ποιοῦσι, acc.) in a manner somewhat as follows :— The pigeon loves (φιλεῖ, acc.) its39 home, and is shrewd: and so the way to40 its home it finds (εὑρίσκει, acc.) easily.
And once there was a fortress of the Mamedaioi, which was under (ἐν, dat.) siege from (ὑπό, gen.) the enemy. And about midday once a soldier of the enemy saw (εἶδε, acc.) a pigeon above in the sky flying (πετόμενος, partic.). And under its wings was something white, as if it were a letter. Thereupon there was desire to the soldiers to catch (λαβεῖν, acc.) the bird. And they made (ἐποιοῦντο, acc.) trial of their arrows: but they were not at all useful.
And immediately there arose (ἐγένετο) a shout of the soldiers : for there was dreadful indignation at the escape of the pigeon.
And she was in fear owing to the noise, and fell (ἔπεσε) straightway into the camp. And they untied (ἔλυσαν, acc.) the letter about41 its neck : and in this were words as follows :—
“Ὁ dear citizens of the Mamedaioi, why do ye feel (ἔχετε, acc.) such fear concerning the siege? There will be no lack to you of assistance. For we are making (ποιούμεθα, acc.) a wonderful preparation. And the tyrant will bring (ἄξει, acc.) an army, and after five days we shall be close to your fortification. Therefore it is foolish to be in distress. For quickly you shall have (use verb ‘to be’) victory and plenty of provisions.’ Such then was the letter.
And the soldiers had (use εἰμί) very-great joy at this. For the plan of the enemy was now manifest, not less than the (gen.) distress of the Mamedaioi.
Accordingly they wrote (ἔγραψαν, acc.) another letter instead of the former one. And it was as follows :—
“Ὁ dear citizens of the Mamedaioi, we are42 now helpless. For we are not able at all to give you (δοῦναι, dat. and acc.) aid. For the tyrant has (ἔχει, inf.) in (his) mind to make (ποιεῖσθαι, acc.) another expedition. But we are not altogether hopeless about you, for you are brave and strong for (ἐς, acc.) the war.’
And this the pigeon carried (ἔφερε, acc.) into the fortress to the Mamedaioi. And those43 within had (εἰμί) extreme fear. And they surrendered (ἐνέδοσαν, acc.) themselves to them, And after five days appeared (ἐφάνη) the tyrant with the army : but the enemy were already within.
So far we have used none but the A and O Declensions, including not only the Substantives, but the Adjectives and Pronouns which are similarly declined.
We now shall add the Consonant Declensions; i.e. we shall use all Substantives, Adjectives, and Pronouns, without any restriction: and also Participles, which are similarly declined, though as the Verbs are not yet learnt, the Nominative Singular of the Participle will be given.
As to the Verbs, we shall still only assume knowledge of the parts of εἰμί, to be, given on page 66; and all other verbs required will be given in the Exercises in the part which is wanted.
The learner will thus be familiarised with some of the common terminations before definitely learning the Verbs.
In the Vocabulary henceforth we shall give the sfem of the Substantives which belong to the Consonant-declension: so that the student will have no need to look the word out in grammar or dictionary, tf he kners his Declensions.
Thus, supposing he wants the Genitive Singular and Dative Plural of ὄνυξ, he finds in the Vocabulary ὄνυξ (-υχ-): this teaches him that the sfem is orvy-, and from that he knows that the Genitive Singular is ὄνυχος, and the Dative Plural ὄνιξι.
Obs.—Unless the contrary is stated, Nouns in -ος are masculine, like λόγος : in -α and -η, fem.: in -ον, neut. Also Nouns in -ις are feminine.
There was a wood thick with44 all manner of trees and plants, and here was a great multitude of birds and beasts. And no one was in greater honour than (gen.) the elephant. And there was once a gathering of the other beasts, and much talk took place (ἐγένετο) about him. ‘What is the cause,’ they said (ἔφασαν), ‘of the honour of the elephant (dat.)?᾽ And some thought (use ἐδόκει, ’seemed,’ with dative of person) one cause and some another.45
And first the speech of the fox was as follows: ‘Why46 is this one better than we (are)? Not at all, I suppose (οἶμαι), on account of his tail, for he has (use ἐστί) a very small and ugly one.’ And at the same time while speaking (λέγων, particip.) he moved (exivet, acc.) his own long and soft tail. —
‘You are right,’47 replied (ἔφασαν) the others, with much laughter and applause.
And after him the bear said (εἶπε) as follows: ’ This48 is true; but honour comes (γίγνεται) to one reasonably from claws: for without claws, I suppose (που), one is inferior in49 beauty50 : but the elephant51 has nothing of that kind (say ’ such’): and this is plain to all.’
And here the ox struck in (ὑπέλαβε), saying (λέγων) : “I, however, recognise (γιγνώσκω, acc.) the cause : for this one has (use ‘to be’) two long teeth, projecting (προέχων, -οντ-) out of his mouth: and these seem (δοκοῦσι) to the others to be like horns: and no one of course knows (οἶδέ, acc.) anything52 more beautiful than horns.’
And last the ass said this : ’ You are all53 ignorant and foolish : for what honour is there to horns at least and tails?54 Surely not so, but the fine glory is that paid to (say ‘is of’) ears. The honour therefore has come (γέγονε) to the elephant owing to his ears.’
There was a hunter, and this (man) had (use ἦν) a custom of going (inf. ἰέναι) often through the forest: for there was the hunting-ground of the lions.
And once he found (εὗρε, acc.) two cubs of a lion (being ὦν, 6vr-) without their father.55 And these had (use ἦν) no fear about him: but they fawned (ἔσαινον) with their tails and were friendly to him.
And this was pleasing to the hunter, and sitting on the ground he gave (ἔδωκε, acc.) some of his food to the cubs: and at the same time he ate (ἤσθιε) with them himself56 also. But the lioness, the mother! of the cubs, came (ἦλθε) in the meantime, and she saw (εἶδε, acc.) the man and the cubs eating (ἐσθίων, -ovr-) together. Then no longer did she have (use ἦν) desire to seize (συλλαβεῖν, acc.) the man, but she went away (ἀπῄει) and killed (ἔκτεινε, acc.) a deer, and brought (ἔφερε, acc.) it to him.
Once an ape saw (εἶδε, acc.) his own face in a mirror, and said (ἔλεξε, acc.) as follows to a certain bear who was near :—
“Ὁ dearest (one), behold now how ugly and foolish is that beast! How impudent he is in his gestures57 and yet he appears (δοκεῖ) to himself to be most beautiful.58 And about myself59 I will say (λέξω) nothing: for how am I like to such-an-one? Far better (n.) to be killed (ἀποθανεῖν) with a dagger than to have (ἔχειν, acc.) such shame among all men! But there are, methinks, some of our friends, O my companion, to whom this (fellow) is extremely like: for they imitate (μιμοῦνται, acc.) in face60 that beast, and have (ἔχουσι) the same kind of antics and folly.’
But to the bear the thing? appeared (ἐφαίνετο) laughable, but he answered (ἀντεῖπε, acc.) nothing.
The Egyptians have (use verb ‘to be’) many stories of all kinds about all matters, and especially about Spirits. For these have great care61 for mankind, and with their power are able to perform (ἐξεργάζεσθαι, acc.) wonderful things.62 And some of these stories I will tell (λέξω, acc.).
For once there was a Spirit who had (εἰμῶ much gold, hidden below the earth. And it was necessary once for him to go away (ἀπελθεῖν). For there is one most powerful and greatest of the Spirits, the king63 of the rest: and it had been ordered (εἴρητο, dat.) to him by the king to go away into Asia. And then he was in great grief and distress about his gold: for it was not possible for him to take it away (ἀποφέρειν, acc.) with him.64 For this is always forbidden to the Spirits. How then shall the gold be in safety?
The learner has now got accustomed sufficiently to the Substantives and Adjectives and Pronouns alone, and also to the Verb ‘to be:’ it is time to begin working the Verbs steadily. We will begin with the Active Verb, using at first only those whose tenses are conjugated regularly, as far as regards the terminations, like the subjoined examples, and using only Present, Future, Imperfect, Strong Aorist; then adding later the Weak Aorist, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect.
| λύ-ω | I loose | |
| λύ-εις | Thou loosest | Singular. |
| λύ-ει | He looses | |
| λύ-ετον | You two loose | Dual |
| λύ-ετον | They two loose | |
| λύ-ομεν | We loose | |
| λύ-ετε | Ye loose | Plural. |
| λύουσι | They loose |
The Future λύσ-ω, ‘I shall loose,’ has exactly the same terminations as the Present.
| ἔλυ-ον | I was loosing. | |
| ἔλυ-ες | Thou wast loosing. | |
| ἔλυ-ε | He was loosing. | |
| ἐλύ-ετον | You two were loosing. | |
| ἐλυ-έτην | They two were loosing. | |
| ἐλύ-ομεν | We | |
| ἐύ-ετε | You | were lossing |
| ἔλυ-ον | They |
| ἔλαβ-ον | I took. | |
| ἔλαβ.-ες | Thou tookest. | |
| ἔλαβ-ε | He took. |
Notice that all the Strong Aorists which end in -ov have exactly the same terminations as the Imperfect.
Observe that the Imperfect and Aorist have e before them. This is called the Augment, and is the mark of a past tense.
(1.) If the Verb begin with consonant, ἐ is prefixed. Only Verbs beginning with p have p doubled, as ἔρ-ριπτον.
(2.) If with a Vowel the following changes take place :—
Other Vowels and Diphthongs not augmented.
When the Verb has a Preposition before it, the augment is inserted after the Preposition:
And in the same city where the gold was, there was also a certain man, rich and miserly. To him therefore the Spint coming (προσελθών) by night spoke (ἔλεξε, acc.) as follows :—
‘Friend, there is no need (οὐδὲν δεῖ) for you (acc.) to be in fear about me. For you are known to me and dear this long time. And from good-will I have now come to you (aorist). For I have much gold here, and it will no longer be useful to me. For I am about (μέλλω) to go abroad (ἀποδημεῖν). And I have a mind to give (δοῦναι, acc.) this to you. And I have found65 no one more faithful nor careful than you. You therefore alone are worthy of so great a gift. To-morrow then you shall see (ὄψει, acc.) in the midst66 of this room all my gold lying on the ground.’
And after this the Spirit went away; and after a little interval it was day: and instead of the Spirit the gold was upon the earth.
And the Spirit was away (use ἄπ-ειμι, like εἰμι) fifty years67 in Asia: and at last he had (εἰμί) permission to return to his former city. And immediately he went to the house of the miserly man. And thus he talked (διελέγετο) to himself : ‘About the man68 himself nothing is certain to me: for after fifty years’ interval he is perhaps dead (τέθνηκε) : but about the gold already everything is plain: for it69 at least will be in safety.’
And this was true. For there was a large strong70 chest, and within this was the gold, and on the top lay (ἔκειτο) the man. And in his hand were the keys of the chest. And he was a corpse. For he had died71 from want of food in (the midst of) so much wealth. And the Spirit found in the chest not only the former gold, but also double as much, gathered by the dead (aorist particip.) man laboriously during this time.
Ariphernes was rich, and satrap72 of many men. And once from disease he fell (κατέστη) into great distress: and at last he died. And immediately, according to the custom of that time,73 he went down (κατέβη) into Hades to Aeacus, the judge of the dead.
And Aeacus said this: ‘Where have you come (aorist) from? and who and what kind of man are you?’
And he said: ‘I am a Persian, Ariphernes by name: and I had a terrible disease for74 many years: and I was not capable myself of attending to (ἐπιμελεῖσθαι, gen.) my province, and the common people there :? but all such things I intrusted to assistants and slaves. But I had forethought for (gen.) my own food and drink.’
And Aeacus answered as follows: ‘I will send you then to Elysium.’ Now this is the place of good men. And Hermes was there, and he said,75 ‘This is unjust: for this man was methinks lazy, and not worthy of such good fortune.’
But Aeacus with much laughter answered thus: ’ But, my friend, this (fellow) is a fool. And many mischiefs arise for mankind on account of the fools, but this man was better than other fools precisely76 on account of his laziness: for thus less mischiefs arose to the multitude.’
To-day I was in the law-court, and was listening to the judge there: and this is clear to me about him: Aeacus will send him to Elysium.
The Damaraioi tell this tale: At that time at which the world was made (ἐγένετο) there was darkness everywhere : and the fields bore various trees, but neither man nor beast nor bird nor fish as yet.77 And one tree they nourish, and name it Mother: from out of this the first man came forth. And after this a second tree sent forth all the animals. But the man bore the darkness ill, and kindled a fire. And most of the animals fled away in78 great fear, but the sheep and. the ox and the dog remained. So these from that time are friendly to man.
We may now add the Weak Aorist, Perfect, and Pluperfect; and the Participles in -ων and -ας and -ως.
Av-w makes in the Present Participle λύ-ων, -ουσα, -ον; the Future λύσ-ω makes λύσ-ων, -ουσα, -ov.
The Strong Aorist ἔ-βαλ-ον makes βαλ-ών, -οῦσα, -dv.
All these three declined in the same way, except as regards Accents, to which the learner had better not attend at present.
The Weak Aorist ἔ-λυσ-α makes λύσ-ας, -ασα, -αν, -αντος, -άσης, -αντος, etc.
The Perfect λέ-λυκ-α makes λελυκ-ώς, -υῖα, -ός, -ότος, -υίας, -ὅτος, etc.
The Augment is always dropped in the Participle, the reduplication retained.
Obs.—In the Vocabularies henceforth a. and f. are used with Verbs to mean Aorist and Future. Thus :—
λείπω (f. λείψω, a. -λιπ-) means that the Future of λείπω is λείψω, and the Aorist Indic. is ἔ-λιπ-ον.
The Libyans are a strange race, and men tell many singular79 tales about them. Once a man had a Libyan slave, and he sent him often to a friend with fish, which the Libyan carried. But the friend was miserly, and the slave never got any80 gift from him in return for his trouble. So at last he grew angry with him on account of his stinginess, and he was not willing (ἤθελε) to carry81 anything to him any more. But he was not able to become (γενέσθαι) free, and his master forced him. And on account of this he devised another stratagem as follows.
1 «Many and singular,’ ὃ 33. 2 § 78.
For, once carrying a fish, he came into his (use ἐκεῖνος) house, and threw down everything which he had on the plate. And the miser got angry and abused him, saying as follows: ‘Young man, you are awkward: I myself therefore will bring in the fish, and will give you an example of propriety.” And — having said this, he took the plate, and brought it in properly. And the Libyan, sitting in his chair, took the gift gracefully, and said to him:’ We give you much gratitude in return for your trouble, O most beautiful youth, and behold! I give you a drachma.’
Writing83 appears to barbarians to be a very wonderful and divine (thing).
There once was a certain master who had an Egyptian slave. And he sent him to a friend, bearing a bag in which he had hidden84 ten most beautiful and sweet apples. And with the apples he put a letter into the bag, in which he wrote the number of the apples, that there were (say ’ are’) ten. And this he did from suspicion about85 the slave: for the Egyptians are for the most part faithless. And when the sun became (ἐγένετο) hot, and the slave was thirsty (had thirst), at last having taken out two of the apples, he ate them up. But having again hidden the rest in the bag, he came to the friend of his master and gave all to him.
1 Words marked 1 are found in the table of Irregular Verbs at the end. 38 8. + Tenses, § 57. + Article, § 7.
And the friend taking86 the bag and opening it, found the apples, being eight, and the letter. And having read this, he discovered that87 he sent ten, but only eight remained (say ‘remain’) now in the bag. Accordingly, growing angry, he abused the slave, and said as follows: ‘You are false and untrustworthy, fellow, since (say’ who,’ ὅστις) having received ten apples you have only given back’ eight. Why have you stolen88 the two?’ But to him it seemed to be useless and foolish to make a false excuse: ‘for the letter,’ he said to himself, ‘saw me eating, and told everything, I suppose.’ So he confessed everything, and weeping much, asked him to grant (say ‘have’) pardon. And he pardoned him: and he went away.
And again the master sent the slave to the same friend, bidding him carry the bag as before, having twenty apples in a letter. And everything occurred (ἐγένετο) as before. For, distressed with the heat of the sun, and having terrible thirst, he wished to eat the apples. But fearing the letter, as knowing how-many apples there were (are), first he hid it under a great stone, and having retired far from thence, he again took out two apples and ate them up. And having done this, he went back again to the stone, and having taken up the letter, put it into the bag, being pleased with his skill, and saying, ‘O most hateful writing, now indeed I have89 splendidly deceived you, having before told (agrees with ’you’ ) everything against me.’
And coming to his friend, he gave back the bag, having eighteen [twenty wanting two] apples. He, opening it as before, and finding from the letter that again there was (is) something wanting to the number (gen.), and that not everything was in it which he had sent,90 then he got very angry with the slave, as being for the second time faithless and impudent. But he, wondering much how91 the letter saw what he did, lying far away under a stone, and fearing excessively, told everything to his friend, saying as follows : ‘But never again shall I be faithless, most excellent (sir), for now I discover that I am never able to deceive (acc.) these accursed writings, which always saw and noticed everything.’ And for the rest of the time he never stole anything more.
The Ethiopians, inhabiting a land facing toward the south, consider water to be most-precious. And in the same land there is a race of apes, being both otherwise intelligent, and especially clever at finding92 water. And this they find, as is natural, by the smell, being a long way off. Accordingly the barbarians, having caught one of the apes, and having tied his leg with a thong, lead him through the land. And the ape follows willingly for a time93: but, suddenly getting scent as though from the water, then he no longer is willing to go with those who are leading him,94 but wishes to pursue the smell. And thenceforward he95 leads, tied with a thong, and they follow.
Now there was a certain Ethiopian, very cruel96 in his disposition (acc.), who gave no water to the ape to drink: so that the beast was in a very wretched state. For the man said this: ‘He, never drinking anything, will be much more desirous of finding water.’ And he led him, with his feet tied (say ‘tied as to (acc.) his feet’) with a thong, as we said before. And the ape having a most dreadful thirst, was very eager about (use ἐπὶ) finding97 the water, and many springs he found by smelling, keeping his nose close to the earth, like a dog tracking stags. And the Ethiopian, thus finding a spring, drank himself, but did not even allow (εἴα) the faithful ape to approach.
But the ape, seeing this, was indignant: for the man seemed to him to be ungrateful and impudent, seeing that he (say ‘who,’ ὅστις) having found the water by reason of him98 (reflexive) was not (say ‘is not’) willing to give him any share. Accordingly; he said to himself as follows: ‘My master drinks and does not think of me at all. I therefore will sever the thong with my teeth, and go away as quickly as possible in flight: And he without me will never be able to find the way by which he came hither from home. And thus he will die in this desert spot.’ And having such things in his mind, he went off, having cut the thong by biting. And his master, as he hoped, died of hunger99 not long after.
There was once a thief by name Thepos, who stealing many things by all manner of arts became very famous. For this man, once coming into the market, wished to buy a certain very precious stone, and taking the stone he said to the dealer as follows : ‘Sir, I am a stranger, and have come from far: and on this account I have not yet money, such as is current here. Are you willing therefore in place of money to take these ducats?’ And at the same time, while-saying100 this he showed him a bag full of golden ducats. And the dealer being experienced in such things, took out one of the ducats, and testing it with a touchstone, discovered it to be (being) in truth golden.
And he took ten ducats from the stranger, and gave him the jewel. And he, taking the bag and the jewel, went away very quickly from the market. And after a not very long time there came to the dealer an archer, as though in a great hurry and considerably alarmed [having much hurry and fear] about something. Now in this city the archers are the guards of the market, searching out everything, and tracking the thieves. He therefore came101 and asked the dealer as follows: ‘Sir, was there here102 just now a stranger, buying precious stones and giving in exchange ducats apparently of gold?’103 And the dealer, as was natural, fearing for his jewel, and suspecting Thepos to be a thief,104 told everything to the archer and showed him the ducats.
And the archer said: ‘All these things are so, as I suspected. For the ducats which you supposed to be golden, having rubbed them with the touchstone, I have105 often seen already : and they106 are not golden at all, but false, made out of copper: but there is gold on the top (say ’lies on them’), so that the touchstone is of course useless with respect to such (coins). But give me the sham gold, which shall give me evidence against the thief.’ And taking the ten ducats he went off quickly, as though after Thepos. But the dealer remained many days,107 hoping to see the archer coming back with the jewel and the thief. But as neither came any108 more, at last he understood the matter: for the archer was a friend to the thief, and these had109 devised the affair.
We will now add the rest of the Active Verb, the Contracted Verbs, and the Middle and Passive; but care shall be taken to use only the commoner Tenses of the Middle and Passive at starting, that the work may be progressive.
The Irregular Verbs have hitherto been mostly given in the Tense required. But for the future we shall only give the Present; and if the student does not know the required Tense, he can find it (either in his own Grammar or) in the list of Irregular Verbs at the end of this book, just before the Vocabulary.
Formerly110 kings ruled the Lamioi: but after a certain time the Lamioi, having driven out the kings, chose instead of them other rulers, whom they called tagoi (ταγοί). And in consequence of this there were party quarrels: and the majority were well-disposed to the tagoi, but the nobles being few were111 hostile, and would112 not obey. And the tagoi perceiving this grew angry, and employed violence, so that they were no longer able to resist. Nevertheless they were enraged with the tagoi, and invented many113 absurd stories about them. And they were in great hopes of114 destroying the honour and fame of the tagoi by these stories. For no one can rule satisfactorily and properly, if he becomes115 ridiculous to his subjects.
And on account of this reason they ridiculed more easily the tagoi, because the kings, being noble, were in old times skilled116 in the pleasures117 connected with the body, such as hunting, and riding, and gymnastics, and also warlike matters,118 but the tagoi being sprung from the people were much more inexperienced119 in such things. And the stories were as follows: A tagos, when shooting, turned the point of the arrow towards himself. And, a tagos going out for purpose of hunting, and seeing an elephant, thought it was (to be) a rock.120 And, a tagos, riding on the road, fell into a well; and not knowing121 how to swim was drowned (say ‘disappeared’). And, a tagos meeting a wolf, wished to climb up a tree, and, falling down, was devoured by the wolf. And, a tagos, having girt on him a sword, and getting entangled with the scabbard, fell down, and, having broken his head,122 perished.
And another time Thepos wanted to steal an emerald, very precious, from the dealer. And he came123 to the dealer and chose his emerald, and asked him how much it was [is] worth: and he said ‘Ten talents,’ And Thepos answered as follows : ‘This then I will buy from you: but that large price [the price being so great] I have124 in no wise brought [with me], but the money I have left at home. And some other business I must manage in the city, and then go home: and so when I have125 finished everything I will come again to you, and you yourself with me shall go to my house, carrying the emerald : and I having arrived there and taken the stone will pay you the money. And thus there will be no risk for you about the price; for you do not know me yet, nor are aware that I am an honest man.’
And hearing126 this, the dealer was pleased, and the matter was so settled. For about the most valuable things it was for the most part arranged in some such way as this. And Thepos went away and came to a famous physician, by name Goulos. And he said as follows: ‘Goulos, I have a brother in other respects quite well as regards health, but in127 one matter diseased and mad. For he is always talking about ten talents, and everywhere giving trouble, and asking everybody as though they owed [owing] this to him. And to others the matter seems to be amusing, but to me most painful. And I will give you an example: for he will come here128 to you and converse probably about ten talents, and will ask you, who have [having] never seen him.’
And the physician, perceiving the matter, answered as follows : ‘Stranger, it is plain129 to me that your brother130 is diseased in131 his head : for there is a sort of madness such as that: the man is often in other respects sensible, but about one thing he is out-of-his-mind. Do you then bring your brother hither to me, and I will tend him as well as possible.’ And Thepos, going away to the dealer, ordered him to give him132 the emerald, and to go with him to his house. And he gave him the jewel, and himself went on, leading-the-way to the house of Goulos. And Thepos was just about to knock at the door: but the dealer, perceiving that it was [is] the house of Goulos, and suspecting something, said to him suddenly as follows :
‘But why then have133 you brought me to this house? for here lives Goulos.’ But Thepos said: ‘You say true: but I am related to Goulos, and he is my guardian.’ And Thepos having said this, and having gone in, left the dealer in the court, and himself went in to Goulos, and told him that his brother was134 there. Having told him this he went out, and received the emerald from the dealer, bidding him go in through the door to his guardian and get the price. And when he came in135 Goulos asked him first about many other things. And the dealer was surprised, because he said nothing about the money; but was modest and did not dare to say anything himself.
But at last, being no longer able to endure, ‘But why,’ said he, ‘have136 you said nothing to me yet about the ten talents?’ But he, hearing137 this, just as Thepos had138 foretold, laughed somewhat, and answered as follows :—’ Never mind, my dear fellow [O dearest one], about the talents, for your brother explained everything to me, and I pity you as much as possible, being in want of all that money.’ And he, suspecting something, and fearing at the same time, and being vexed, said, ‘What brother? and how do you mean that you pity me? But I request you to stop from your nonsense, and to pay me the money as quickly as possible.’ But after this Goulos examined the matter still more, himself also somehow being frightened, and discovering the trick. And everything was made plain by a short conversation; but Thepos meanwhile had139 escaped already, carrying off the emerald.
The Thessalians sometimes call God Providence, because he foresees everything. And some one once said to a Thessalian farmer, ‘How are you, farmer?’ and he answered, ‘Very badly off.’ And the other said ‘Why?’ and the farmer said as follows :—‘On account of this Providence: for the land is tolerably good and excellent, nor do I find fault with the season: but Providence is very hostile; for sometimes140 he injures my corn, and sometimes my olives: and he is always laying plots against me, so as to spoil (infin.) my. fruit. But I must not, at least if I am a pious man,141 cast away all hope.’ And the other being surprised said, ’ But what hope is there [to him] to whom Providence happens to be142 hostile?’ And the farmer said, ‘No matter: for there is a God in the heaven, and he will keep Providence in check.’
-Thracian, Θρᾷξ. - inn, πανδοκεῖον. - intend, διανοοῦμαι. - porters, πανδοκευτρία. - go abroad, ἀποδημέω. - search for, ζητέω. - travel, ὁδοιπορέω. - several, συχνοί. - be hindrance, εἶναι ἐμποδών. - town hall, rpvraveiov. - use, χρῆσθαι, d. - go up to, προσελθεῖν, I, d. - language, γλῶσσα. - loud, μέγας. - practise, μελετάω (-ήσ-). - voice, φωνή. - learn, καταμανθάνω, I. - laugh at, ἐγγαλάω, d. - jugged hare, λαγῷα, n. pl.
There was once a Thracian, who intended to go abroad into Greece, and travel everywhere through the land alone. But this only was a hindrance to him, that he was not in any way able to speak143 the language. And at last, having practised, he learnt these words, ‘Can you144 give me jugged hare?’ And everywhere when he came (partic.) into an inn he asked the hostess this, and finding the jugged hare and eating it he was much pleased. And once he arrived at Athens, and searching for an inn, he saw several people going into the Town Hall: and it seemed to him to be a very large inn. So he went in himself also, and finding145 a slave by the door he went up to him and spoke to him in a loud voice146 as follows: ‘Can you give me jugged hare?’ And all who were present laughed at him, and he was abashed and defeated.
Wisdom is of course a good thing, and useful to men for (ἐς) the needs147 of life: but sometimes it is possible to have148 practised and to know many things, but to be very foolish (acc.). And a scholar once upon a time was an example of this, for he read many books, but for daily life149 was evidently150 very absurd.
For once seeing in summer-time151 a river, and wishing to bathe, he jumped down into the water. But not knowing to swim at all, and being frightened, and rolling about in the water like a porpoise, at last he was nearly drowned. Buta farmer passing by saved him, pulling him out with a rope, und when he was safe (partic.) he said as follows: ‘To-day I will keep away from the water : and to-morrow, having learnt the art of swimming152 at home, I will again make trial of the river.’
Another time the scholar keeping a horse, grew vexed on account of the expensiveness, and said to his slave, ‘You must not give so much fodder to the horse; for he ought to be kept at a less expense.’ And the horse, not having enough to eat, after having been153 ill for some time, died. But the scholar was very much grieved, lamenting and complaining, for he said as follows, ‘How unlucky I am! and all this trouble I have had154 in vain. For this horse, having learnt to eat nothing,155 and having become cheap and useful to me, has foolishly died, and all this trouble must begin again from the beginning.’ And buying another horse, he again treated him in (acc.) the same manner, so that this also he lost likewise by hunger, being indeed unlucky.
Another time the scholar having heard about a friend that he was ill (is ill) arrived at his house, and went in to his [to the side of his bed] bedside. And, seeing the other lying in silence and in a most miserable state, ‘Come now,’ he said, ‘my dear friend (O dearest!), how are you?’ But he being all but dead, was naturally not able to make any answer. And the scholar being angry, said, ‘Won’t156 you give any answer then to your good kind friend here,157 who have158 not spared all this trouble, but, neglecting my business, have come to you and am comforting you?’ But he turned round, as being in pain, but none the more gave him any159 answer. ‘Well!’ said the scholar, ‘may I myself some day be ill, and treat you so when you come to me!’
Now we will introduce the common Greek construction of the Genitive Absolute, which has already appeared once. It is not necessary to explain here the use, as the learner is already familiar with it from the Latin Ablative Absolute; or, if not, can easily master it by reading the sections about the Participle,160 which explain it fully.
The scholar once wanted to sell his house, and going into the market-place he conversed with those who were gathered there161 about this, offering at the same time one stone as a sample. And another time he wanted to know this—what a man is like when he is asleep. So, having bought a mirror, he set it down by the bed, and having shut his eyes, he hoped to find out something. And another time, meeting a friend, he turned gloomy, and would not look at him. And when he asked162 him why he was out of temper, ’ Because yesterday,’ he said, ‘I had a dream, and thought I greeted you, but you turned round without answering.’163
Another time the scholar meeting a physician, was ashamed, and, hiding himself behind a tree, tried to escape notice. And the physician seeing him, and laughing at him, asked . him as follows, ‘Why are you thus ashamed and hide yourself? Have you secretly done anything wrong, and injured me?’ But he said, ‘In this only do I injure you, that for a long time I have not164 fallen ill of165 any disease, but happen to be166 in complete health.’ And another time, seeing birds sitting on a tree, the scholar came up quietly, and stretching out his cloak, shook the leaves violently, evidently expecting the birds to fall (fut. inf.) into his bosom.
Another time he got a jar of very sweet and valuable wine, and intrusted it to the slave,167 who seemed to him to be most faithful to guard, first having put a seal upon its mouth. But the slave, knowing the wisdom of his master, bored the jar below, and for some considerable time took out the wine without being discovered,168 but at last the scholar, being about to entertain his friends, ordered the slave, having opened the jar in the presence169 of his friends, to distribute the wine. And being opened, the jar was evidently170 no longer full. But the friends immediately accused the slave, as having stolen it, showing at the same time the hole; but the scholar laughed at them as being foolish, ’ for the cask,’ he said, ’ is bored171 below, but the wine is wanting above.’
Chanos, being a great king, and being about to die, called together his ten sons. And he ordered them to bring each one arrow, and to bind with three chains the arrows, being gathered together. And this being done, he asked the eldest to take them172 and break them across. And he taking the tips with his hands, and thrusting (with his foot) against the middle, nevertheless was unable. Then the father requested the others in order to make the same attempt, but of course no one was able. Then calling the youngest, he told him to untie the arrows and to break each separately; which, though173 still a boy, he accomplished most easily. ‘And you in the same way, said Chanos, ’when bound by friendship no one shall conquer, but one by one174 everybody will easily destroy.’
Aristophanes wrote a comedy about Ploutos, which is very absurd, and gives great pleasure to the reader.175 For Ploutos at first was blind, and associated with everybody at random, whether (being) good or bad. And a certain Athenian having taken him to the god Asklepios at (to) Epidauros, cured him of his disease. And when this had taken place,176 many wonderful177 things occurred. For the bad178 who formerly were rich suddenly were found poor: for an old woman, for example, whom a certain youth favoured for her wealth, he having deserted her, comes forward abusing him violently. And some even of the gods, as no one sacrifices any179 more, are reduced to (arrive at) extreme poverty and famine.
And the king intended to add somewhat to his army, so as to have (inf.) a greater force, and there was a prophet by name Attos, whom all men greatly honoured owing to his wisdom, and he forbade the king to do180 what he wished (wishes). And the king being enraged despised him, and derided his art, and asked these (questions): ‘Can you181 find out by your prophecy the thing which I am thinking of at the present moment, if it is easy?’ And he being silent for a short time, said, ‘It was (inf.) easy.’ And the king, laughing, said,182 ‘But this I had in my mind, to cut through this stone with a knife.’ And the prophet, taking the knife, while183 all wondered, cut through the stone.
And there was once a feast to the god, and according to the custom it was needful for Smintheus to make a speech about the god, coming forward on (to) a high platform. And Smintheus fearing about himself asked a friend to come: for it seemed to him likely-to-be (fué. inf.) easier to speak before (in) many people, when a very faithful friend was present.184 So the day arrived,185 and he went with his friend to the platform. And when he had spoken186 those present praised him. And Smintheus going away asked his friend, ‘How then did my speech please you?’ And he being ata loss (for he was wearied with the speech) answered that it was short. But Smintheus said ’ [Yes] for I did not wish to prove tiresome to the hearers,’ ‘But nevertheless you were tiresome,’ said the other.
Once on a time, long ago, there was a man, of those187 people, rich188 and desiring to know all kinds of things, whose name was (to whom was a name) Mandephilios. And he was abroad for thirty years travelling to all countries, and learning everything about each from the inhabitants. And he is an example, what189 strange and incredible tales men tell about things a long way off. For he says things like this: There are men somewhere, who have only one leg, with which they go about hopping. And there is an island in which grow trees, which instead of fruit bear little lambs. And in the country toward the east there are beasts having no tail,190 but another head behind.
And the same man tells another tale as follows: In a very strong tower was a very beautiful maiden, who received any one that ever passed that way [the one always passing thither] kindly, and entertained him. And the stranger remained the whole night with her feasting and conversing: and going away in the morning, possessed with a strong love, he begged her earnestly to be united to him in marriage. And she always said she was willing (inf.), but he must (inf.) go away and come back again next day, and not191 be frightened at any of the things he saw (sees). And when he came back192 he found instead of a maiden a most savage dragon. And seeing it, and being terrified, he retired as quickly as he could: and she pursued him,’ and caught him, and devoured him.
Edegardes, being king of the Britannoi, was in size (acc.) very small, but in his body (dat.) was stronger than all. And he happened once to be entertaining Kenethios, tyrant of the Kaledonioi, and he, as was customary with (dat.) the people from that place,193 being very drunk in the night, fell into much talk and laughter with those about him. And he said in jest,194 about Edegardes, ‘This, however, I wonder at in the king (gen.), how then being so small he rules so many men.’ And as all laughed,195 the king hearing the noise asked, ’ What is the cause of the laughter?’ And some one having told him, Edegardes being angry sends for Kenethios to a specified place to meet him196 on the next day.
And Kenethios having come gladly (for he hoped to get some favour from him), Edegardes having two daggers under his cloak showed them, and reminding him of what was said197 on the previous day, said as follows: ‘You wonder now, my brother, how then I rule so many people: and to yourself, as is natural, you seem to be more worthy to possess my rule. But it will be better to decide the matter by contest.198 So take the dagger, and defend yourself.’ And he being frightened, for he was said to be very strong, fell before his feet and besought him to grant pardon. ‘For,’ said he, ‘I said everything, because I was drunk,199 and owing to folly.’ And he smiled and pardoned him.
A Boeotian once travelling with an Aetolian arrived at an inn: and going in they asked the hostess to receive them and entertain them. And she replied that the house was (is) full, except one chamber only. And going in there,200 dinner having been served,201 they laid themselves down on the ground as though for sleep. And not being able to sleep, they began to jest and to laugh with each other. And the Boeotian, seeing the foot of his companion projecting out of the rug, ‘What an ugly202 foot you have!’ said he, ‘I will give a talent to you if you can show203 me an uglier (one).’ And he, immediately thrusting out his left foot from the rug, said, ‘This one is uglier, for it wants one toe:’ but the Boeotian replied, ‘No, but more beautiful. For the smaller, if it is ugly, is less ugly than the greater.’
When Prdbos was ruler of the Romaioi there was a certain soldier Bénosos: and this man, having been reared204 in Iberia, Probos despatched to Germania, and intrusted the ships to him in that quarter205 to prepare. And Bonosos was an intelligent man, but fat in206 his body and given to (turned towards) drunkenness. And at first he was faithful to the ruler as regards the ships: but after a certain time he planned to set on foot a conspiracy, and himself hoped to gain the rule. And having an army at last, he openly revolted. And a general having come against him from Probos, and a battle having taken place, Bonosos was defeated, and, hanging himself with a rope, perished. And the conquerors said, ‘Here hangs not a man, but a skin full of wine.’
Mastros was a famous thief, and many things about him have already been told in other books. And once he wished to become leader of the thieves, as being very intelligent, and very clever at deceiving.207 And when he asked this,208 they said to him as follows: ’First you must steal the meat out of the house of the priest, and then, having done this, you shall rule us. But this of course was very difficult, as209 the cook and the other slaves were guarding; and besides these things, the priest charged the slaves to let no210 one pass into the house. So Mastros invented a very clever device as follows. Having dressed himself up as an old woman, he took a great bag.
And having bought three hares, he put them into the bag, and, having tied it round with a rope, he went to the house, and asked that211 it should be permitted him to goin. ‘For I am a wretched old woman,’ said he, ‘and I am exhausted with labour.’ And the slaves were afraid to allow him, the master having forbidden. But at last, seeing that212 it was a woman, and suspecting no danger, he let her go in. And Mastros gave great thanks, and going in, sat down by the door. But while the servants were guarding213 the meat as had been told them, and not minding the stranger woman at all, Mastros opening the bag sent one hare through the door. And, jumping up, he shouted with a loud voice, ‘Look! a hare went by.’
And they, greatly surprised, looked into the courtyard, desiring to pursue, but not at all daring to disobey their master. And some one said, ‘How unlucky it is, for on214 the other days we can pursue, but we have never seen a hare: but to-day, when we have seen,215 we are compelled to linger in the house.’ And Mastros, after a short time, letting go another hare, shouted again yet louder, showing them the beast running away. And they were still more eager to hunt it, but did not yet dare. And at last, the thief letting go the third hare, then the slaves could stand it no longer, but all together were off out of doors in pursuit.216 And he meanwhile snatching up the meat himself too fled away.
There was once a captain by name Kolimos. And this man, having gone away a long voyage from his native country, and having been absent many months, was sailing quietly home through the great sea which is called Atlantikos. And he had a certain tablet in which all the parts217 of the sea were inscribed, both islands and rocks and the shallows of the water. And he chanced one day to be sitting in the ship and examining this tablet. And showing a certain island, there written, to one of the sailors who happened to be standing by, ’ Behold,’ he said, ’this island is not at all convenient for us to approach, for it lies outside the way which218 we must sail. Nevertheless I wondrously desire to go there.219
And the sailor asked, ‘Why are you possessed with so great a desire? for the people at home220 earnestly requested us to hasten home as quickly as possible.’ And he answered, ‘I will confess everything to you: for perhaps I shall seem to you to be a fool, but you will forgive me, I think, when you have heard all. For about this island I have seen a most dreadful dream, and that not once only, but last night221 for the fourth time. And I saw something like this. On the far side of the island there is a harbour, and there are rocks projecting out of the water. And on the rocks there is a ship stuck fast, and being destroyed by the waves. And there, tied to a mast, and scarcely projecting with his head out of the sea, a certain miserable slave is perishing. And this having seen four times, I am in a dreadful state.’
And the sailor hearing it was thunderstruck, himself too as though by a vision being beside himself, and at a loss, owing to the terrible thing. And at last they no longer endured, but turning aside the ship from its voyage bore straight down upon the island. And Kolimos having arrived recognised the form of the beach, as the same with222 that which he saw in the dream. And having sailed to the far side they found both the other things and the harbour as the captain had explained.223 And not far from the land rocks were standing out of the water, on which a ship was fixed224 and being destroyed by the sea. And putting in to these and going on board the wreck, they found the slave all but dead. And being untied, for he was bound,’ and having recovered a little, he spoke as follows:
’Three days ago (before) we were sailing towards this island. And the captain, a violent225 man and a pirate, had a mind to put in there and attack the islanders secretly, and plunder everything. But as I alone spoke against it, they all got angry, and having taken and bound me thus, intended to put me to death by hunger. But in the night, being near to the harbour, without knowing it! they sailed close to these rocks and made shipwreck. And there being a storm they remained all night, fearing and cursing, and some even got drunk. And at daybreak, the ship being firmly stuck, they went on board the boat, and tried to get safe to land. But the boat being ground against the rocks, they all at once perished.
‘And these men having perished thus miserably, as they deserved, I gave thanks to the God, but about myself I hoped nothing more, nor did there appear any rescue. But the ship, little by little, was constantly sinking into the sea. And then a wonderful thing happened. For though it was day,226 I saw a vision clearer than all my former ones.227 For | saw a ship sailing along as though towards Anglia, and 1 expected them to come up and rescue me. But they, neglecting me, sped away forwards. And I, being disappointed, cried out loudly. And hearing my voice there rose up ἃ noble old man and turned the ship out of its voyage, and they arrived and saved me. And I awoke, and heard a cry, and opening my eyes saw the same old man coming up to me with you.’ ”
Now about dreams, both already have such things been told, and other things we have to tell not less wonderful. For there was a man named Sakés who had a brother whom he loved very much. And this man was abroad among the Indians, in a place where many barbarians were, and most hostile. And once sleeping in the night in summer-time,228 he saw in a dream Sakes, appearing in his face to be much disturbed, and when he asked him what was (is) the matter, the other answered as follows: ‘Wake up, O dearest one, silently, and take your sword, and hide yourself behind the door : for two barbarians are coming to slay229 you.’ And he heard, and rose up, and was in great fear, but taking his sword as was told230 him, and hiding himself, he waited.
And not long after came two barbarians, and one opening the door, went up to the bed to kill231 him. But the other, remaining below, proceeded232 to steal the goods. And he who was hidden, surprising the barbarian while touching the bed, and smiting him secretly, killed him. And meanwhile he perceived the other one coming up with the spoil. And as he came in, he bade him, as though being his comrade, to lift up the dead man and take him away outside. And he suspecting nothing, the darkness being deep, stooped as though to take! the corpse, at the same time dropping his spoil, And he, availing himself of the opportunity, struck this man also with the sword, and killed him. And then he called his slaves with a loud voice, who, coming to his aid, conveyed outside the barbarians who were dead.
And after many days he received from his brother a letter as follows: ‘O dearest one, to-day I saw a dream about you, very wonderful, on account of which I am in much fear and perplexity. For it was midday,233 and sleeping, ’as I am accustomed in summer-time,234 I saw you very plainly resting in a bed. And it was night with you (which in reality happens to those who235 are so far off), and I saw two barbarians coming to your house, and I heard them conversing (and saying) that they were intending (are intending) to murder you and plunder the things in the house. And fearing, I tried to wake you up out of sleep: but I could not move at all, as is wont to happen to one sleeping. And from fear and distress, with a loud shout236 I called you: and immediately I woke up, and knew that in reality I was shouting.’237 And by calculating he found that to each man his own dream appeared at the same time.
When Conos was once king of the Indians, the officer died who used238 to kill those condemned to death.239 And, wishing to choose another, Conos called an assembly, and ordered those who wished to have the office of the officer to be present. And there were present three, prepared240 as for the contest, so that they brought out three of the condemned, whom it was necessary to kill, by way of trial. And the first of the competitors cut off the head of the man with one blow. And the second not only cut it off with one blow, but, cutting very skilfully, did not even throw it down from his shoulders. And the third shook his sword for a little, but stopped, not even seeming to have touched241 the prisoner. And Conos asking, ‘When then will you kill him?’ he ordered them to put salt to the nose of the man, and, a sneeze occurring, the head fell off. The king therefore, much. pleased, chose this man.
There was once a certain Mémos, king of the Oneioi, whom the citizens much despised, and often when the king himself was present they ventured to jest and insult him. And he, being easy-tempered, did not care at all nor rebuke them. And a certain woman of the place,242 having been disgracefully insulted, wished to go to the king and get243 assistance, and punish the man who had insulted her. But her father advised her as follows. ‘Ask nothing,’ said he, ‘from him at least, for he who does not assist himself when insulted, how shall such a one assist another?’ But, nevertheless, she went and said244 as follows: ‘King! I do not ask for any aid, but I wish to learn from you how, being insulted, I shall bear it with such indifference.’ And he, being vexed, not only assisted her, but for the future punished those who insulted him.
Another time two poets came to Momos, asking him to decide a contest. And he said, ‘I am willing to do all things which I can so as to help you.” And when he had said this, they explained to him the matter. For the contest was about their art, each claiming to be able to write poetry more skilfully. And he said, ’Each of you then recite a poem in the presence of all, and when we have heard we will decide which seems to be better in the245 art. And we will give much gold to the conqueror.’ Then both, being pleased, praised him.246 And silence being made, the elder recited his poem. And when he had done, immediately without waiting the king decided that the other was (is) victorious.
Another time Momos wishing to know about his subjects, what kind of people they are, and how they feel247 towards him, having dressed himself up as a dealer, used to go through the city by night. And the citizens, being hospitable, everywhere received him gladly. And he heard many things, said without fear about himself; and once he came to the house of a tanner, who was punishing his wife with blows and abuse for disobedience.248 And she cried out, ’But I have done nothing at all, save only I went out to see249 the soldiers. But this stranger will aid me, for it is not customary here to punish women so cruelly. Will you not then250 imitate the king, who lets his own wife go free to do all that she wishes ?᾽
But the husband did not stop beating251 his wife, but called the stranger to witness, saying as follows: ‘Stranger, I don’t know where you come252 from, but this you must learn from us, how much trouble the king gives to his subjects by managing his own house foolishly.’ But the woman, not yet having ceased from her noise, said, ‘But he does not indeed govern us badly, for everybody everywhere praises our city, that we are orderly and carefully preserve laws well laid down.’ ‘That is true,’ said the man, ‘and the city is worthy to be thus praised : but of this not the king is the cause, from negligence relaxing his hold on the government, but we who punish our wives.’
Pompos was a thief, who was nobody particular in wisdom, but in impudence was superior to all mankind. For many men having tried to persuade this man to steal no253 longer, at last a certain Phaléros, a physician, a very good-natured man, received him into his house as a servant, knowing indeed that he254 was dishonest and always stealing, but hoping by good nature and justice to heal him. ‘For often,’ he said, ‘a man succeeds by such means, when other people are unsuccessful.’ And for a long time Pompos proved a good servant: but one day a friend happened to be coming in to Phaleros, and he saw Pompos running away through a back door having a golden cup. And being captured and brought to his master, he said, ‘But I was taking it to the river that I might255 wash it!’
Another time Pompos being very hungry was walking along the road256 towards Corinth. And seeing a beggar sitting under a tree by the wayside, and eating some inferior food, he had a mind to get it by some means and run away. And the beggar being lame257 used to travel with a wooden leg fastened on [having bound beneath him a wooden leg]. And then he was resting, having taken this off. And his dinner, which was nothing very nice, he was eating quietly. And he having greeted Pompos, and given him:a share of the food258 which he had, he was very much pleased and was grateful for259 his friendliness and good nature. And at last, having eaten and drunk, they lay down to rest: and while the beggar was snoring, Pompos getting up, and taking his purse and his leg, ran away.
In the Island of the Keltai there is a race of men called260 Légioi. These, in other things, are like the rest of the citizens, but wine they never taste, thinking it impious to drink, even however little. And they have meetings, where assembled they speak many words, praising much the man who abstains from wine, as the best of men. And these being once assembled in such a meeting, a certain Légios, an orator, was explaining how those who drink no261 wine are always well in their body, nor are they weak with any disease. And a man standing up, not262 a Legios, said as follows: ‘I have drunk4 wine now for seventy years, have263 never been ill even a single day.’ ‘But, the orator said, ’But if you had abstained (imperf.) from wine, you would264 by this time have been one hundred years old.’
And Pharos had an excellent horse, whom many people much wished to have. And Pharos always boasted about this, as being superior to all horses in speed. And his friends advised him to guard it more carefully: but he was not at all afraid of thieves, for he knew this: that the horse at other times ran (runs) slowly, but if pinched265 in (acc.) his right ear, conquered (pres.) all the others; and the master alone knew this; so he did not care for thieves, being able to catch them with any other horse. But once a thief came by night, who, slipping under the tent, set free the horse, and mounting, went off in flight.266 But Pharos hearing a noise, and waking, discovered what267 had taken place.
But laughing, and not at all at a loss, he rose up and went to his neighbour, and told him the matter. And he asked him to furnish him with his horse, so as to catch his own. And he agreed, and Pharos, taking it and mounting, pursued the thief. But he having gone on a long way, was hoping to escape home in time.268 And thus there was set on foot a kind of horse race, and all those269 in the country watched them passing by quicker than lightning, and wondered much. But at last, Pharos, having a good horse, was catching up the thief, following very close behind. Then he shouted to the thief, ‘Pinch his right ear.’ And he pinched, and the horse fled away quicker than lightning, and vanished. For he wished rather to preserve the reputation of the horse than the horse itself.
Graules, having three sons, was not anyhow able to maintain them, as the food was deficient.270 Accordingly, having explained to them all his difficulty, he sent them away, and bade them learn some trade, and come back again to him after five years. And they, with many tears, having bidden farewell to each other, went each his own way.”271 And the elder arrived at the house of a very clever soothsayer, who was able to see what was272 very far off, by273 employing a certain crystalline device. And the second, living with a certain archer, became most skilful in shooting.274 And there was nothing anywhere which he was not able to overtake with his arrow, even though’275 the others did not even see it.
But the third brother chanced to learn nothing of this kind, but being276 more rustic than the others he went off to a cobbler’s house, and spent the five years there, learning all his trade: and at last he himself also became very skilful, so that277 he knew how to stitch together all broken things.278 And when279 the time was ending, the three sons came back again to the father, being ready each280 to show off his own art. And Graules said this to them: ‘Children, listen to me, and perhaps you will find very great wealth for us. For there is an eagle, having established his house on a very high rock: and the king promises much gold to that one, whoever shall hand over to him the young of this eagle alive.’
And281 on hearing this, they proceeded to a display of their art. And the first, drawing the crystal out of his bosom, raised it towards the rock. And,282 after waiting some short time, he said,283 ‘On the very top of the rock284 stands one pine: and high on the pine is the eagle’s nest, made with boughs and chips woven together, containing five eggs.’ And the second said nothing, but got ready his bow and discharged his bolt: and, after no long interval, a noise was heard (occurred) as of a tower being thrown down: and the nest fell into the midst (of them), equal to a war-ship in size, containing the eagle dead and five most wonderful eggs.
And in other respects the father praised the brothers, as having well executed the matter: but in this he was at a loss, because the eggs were cracked, and it did not seem to be possible to hand over the young alive to the king. Thereupon the youngest son coming forward said, ‘I will relieve you from this difficulty.’ And at the same tmme he took the eggs and stitched them knowingly together, and, after two days, the eggs again being cracked, out came five chickens, having no other sign of what had occurred,285 except that they had a red line round their breast. And the king, as286 he saw everything done that he wished, was excessively pleased, and to the others gave much wealth, but to the youngest intrusted his government.
The Phelioi, having been well treated in many things at the hands of a certain Linios, established a house in their city, wherein it was lawful for all the Linioi to dwell without expense, but it was necessary for the others to pay a stater a day whosoever wished to live there. And once there arose strife and bitter wrath between a Phelios and a Linios, and in quarrelling287 they reviled each other to a wonderful extent. And the Linios mocking the other, said, ‘Behold how much more precious I am than you, for here I live with no expense, where you (live) paying a stater.’ But the Phelios said, ‘But I would choose288 to pay many staters, rather than receive the greatest things on condition of being [at least being] myself a Linios.’
Now the cat, wishing to know what289 the other beasts thought (think) about life, went to each in turn: and having come to them she asked what she ought to do to pass her life well.290, And the others replied just as each happened: but the owl composing her face to great solemnity291 said, ‘O cat, most of all there is need of philosophy. And to philosophise is to search and to think about such matters as are most difficult to discover.’ But the cat said that it was292 no use to search for such things : for that293 it was better to think about easy matters,—’ For no one,’ said she, ’ searches for anything, unless in294 the hope sometime to find: for it would not even be sensible.’295
But the owl, closing her eyelids slowly and solemnly, said, ‘Well, I will give you an example of my philosophy, in what way search is made296 For you know, I presume, that the bird arises from the egg, and the egg no less from the bird. It belongs therefore to philosophy to examine thoroughly this (question), whether the egg arose first or the bird. For it is clear that one of the two appeared first, since none of the beasts is by nature immortal or eternal.’ ‘But what hope is there,’ said the cat, laughing, ‘to find out sucha thing?’ And the owl, looking yet more solemn than before, said, ’ No hope: and for this297 I give the gods very great thanks: for philosophers take delight in searching;298 but to find out anything is the end and destruction of philosophy.’
Once on a time there were some wonderful weavers, by name Plekioi, who came to the city of Kelos. Now Kolos was a very proud king, but he was not considered to be wise. And the Plekioi asked leave to go to the king, and show off their skill to him. And they came and spoke as follows :— ‘O most mighty king, we should299 be willing to do you very much good by our art; for we can weave such garments, that300 you wearing them shall be able to discern those faithful and unfaithful of all with whom you deal. For all that are faithful and worthy of honour and capable of ruling,301 these will be able to see the garments clearly: but the unworthy will not see anything at all.’
And the king, much pleased with what302 the weavers told him, said, ‘I should be delighted to303 receive such clothes, and in return for such a gift I should think no price too great : accordingly ask confidently for as much as you please, seeing that304 I am ready to pay anything.’ And they replied as follows: ‘O king, we give thanks to you for what305 you have306 said, but for the money we care less: but since we must needs live, you shall give us each 100 staters a day. And in return for this we will weave you one full-length robe, which to the good and faithful citizens and all who are capable of rule shall seem to be most magnificent, but to the unworthy not even visible.’
And when they had said this, and had saluted the king, they went off to the house and set up the loom. And the king, according to the agreement, paid to each the staters each day. And they remained many days307 in the house as though308 working at309 the cloth. And as310 the loom stood by a great window, the passers-by all saw the weavers seated at311 their work, and throwing their arms quickly up and down as though weaving a great cloak. And in the city, as was natural, there was much interest and ceaseless conversation about the matter; and, moreover, no small strife, some312 rejoicing that now the king would313 be quit of the unfaithful men, the others afraid, and abusing the weavers.
And after two months, as the Plekioi were still working and nothing yet had come into view, the king sent his steward to their314 house, as though to see (fut. part.) the work how it was getting on (pres.). And he came and inspected the loom, and saw nothing at all. And the Plekioi, standing round, showed him the cloth, how variegated and bright it was (is), and skilfully manufactured.315 And he not being able to see a whit the more, praised it, however, unsparingly, and held up his hands, and all but grovelled on the ground, as though admiring the magnificence of the garment. And he went away and reported to Kolos in like manner, that the cloth was (is) most beautiful, and would (will) be complete in a short time.
And at last when many more days had elapsed,316 a certain one of the Plekioi came back saying that the cloth was ready.317 And the chief of the officers went to look at (fut. partic.) the work. And all the weavers were present, and as before they showed off in each detail how excellent the cloak was (is). And the officers, not even themselves seeing anything, fearing however just as the steward (had done), and being conscious each in his heart how unworthy and unfaithful he was (is), did not in any wise dare to confess the truth, that they had seen318 nothing. But they praised and admired it themselves. And so by praising319 they persuaded the king to accept the cloak, and put it on, and320 go in a procession solemnly through the city.
And the king, coming with much hope, with all those in office attending, was led on to the loom, amid the salutes and obeisance of the weavers.321 But when322 the loom was uncovered, not even Kolos himself saw anything323 at all. But being conscious in his own heart that (ὅτι) he had sinned (aor.) many324 (sins), and, being afraid, he gave no325 sign, but, hiding his suspicion, praised the work, and putting off his clothes he put round him the supposed326 new cloth, and so marched through the street. And the people in the streets,327 not even themselves seeing anything, but being afraid, like the former ones,328 to confess it, made much noise by praising and admiring; and at last a child cried out, ‘But the king is naked;’ and as each whispered this to his neighbour, all discovered the state of the case, and fell into much laughter, mocking both themselves and the king,
Now the Kalydonioi are said to be royal in race: and they themselves also strongly insist that329 this is the case. And once on a time there was one of the citizens, coarse in his nature, who being vexed with the Kalydonioi, said that} the daughter of the principal man among them (of them) was not royal. And she hearing it,330 and being indignant, wanted to prove that (ὅτι) she was (is) royal. And royal persons are easy to discern in this way, because they must lie softly: otherwise they are severely wounded and suffer pain in their body. Accordingly she bought a dry bean and laid it down on a couch, and having spread twenty very soft rugs over the bean, she lay down.
And these things she did on account of this, because of ordinary men no one would331 suffer pain by reason of a bean, with332 so many and so soft333 rugs lying between: but royal persons must needs be wounded even so. And the maiden lying down as was said tried to sleep: but owing to the pain she could not even fall asleep. For on account of the bean that was below334 she felt pain in all her body, and was disturbed all335 night long, not even being able to close her eyes. And at dawn her maid-servants came back, and found the wretched (girl) bloody and wounded, and nearly dead. So all admitted that336 verily in truth she was royal.
The Kilioi are a wonderful race, and they think that there are many337 terrible spirits. And, once upon a time a Kilios bought an estate, and found338 a spirit there dwelling under ground, by name Grymphos. And once when the Kilios was asleep, Grymphos appeared to him in a dream, and spoke to him as follows: ’O Kilios, it is open to you to choose one of two things, whether you wish to be a friend to me or hostile. And I advise you to be a friend339 by all means: for if you are hostile,340 it is probable that I too should become bitter, and in many, ways injure your land: and this you will be more sensible not341 to risk (not risking). Do you then wish to ’make an agreement with me about the land ?᾽
But the Kilios, already afraid, and wishing to save both himself and the produce of his land, agreed with Grymphos and said he would make a contract. But Grymphos said : ‘On these terms then I am willing to become a friend to you. For from your estate you shall pay me the following tribute : this year,342 I shall have of the produce all that lies (newt. part.) under the earth, being my343 share: but whatever you shall find above ground, let it be your gain. And thus you344 shall become rich, but I as is natural shall be left345 poor. But in346 the following year exactly347 the opposite must be done : for to me you shall give what is above ground, but to yourself what is below.’
On these terms348 therefore the Kilios made a contract with Grymphos, and he immediately disappeared. And when day came, the Kilios being aroused out of sleep, and rising up from his bed first was in great perplexity, as he had promised349 that he would give (fui. inf.) to Grymphos the half of his produce. But at last he devised this (scheme) so as to deceive the spirit. During350 the first year he sowed corn: and thus all the fruit being above ground he had himself, Grymphos carrying off what was351 below ground and useless. But in the second he sowed onions in the field: and of these the leaves only projected above the earth; and again Grymphos got nothing profitable. Accordingly being twice cheated he departed and troubled the Kilios no more.
Now, the merchants have a law, when wishing to carry away their goods abroad, to tie a tablet round them, on which is written352 the place whither they are minded to export them. And sometimes they export dogs and hares and cats: and they tie the tablets in like manner round353 these also. And a certain citizen, who happened to be walking in the port, saw a boy with a dog standing by the seaside, and weeping and protesting in a marvellous manner. And when he asked354 why he did (does) such things, the boy with many tears said, ‘Why, this accursed dog has eaten his tablet up; nor do I know at all where on earth we are being carried to.’
Two Boeotians, Isménos and Philondas, once were travelling in a boat across the Aegaean Sea. And the night being dark, and a severe storm having come on, they found themselves in great danger.355 And Ismenos, fearing for his safety, called out in a loud voice356 to his companion and said, ‘Philondas, now indeed you must pray to the gods as heartily as possible, in order that357 we may be saved.’ But he said he358 was not able to pray, as for359 twenty years he had prayed360 no prayer to any361 god. But as Ismenos earnestly entreated, he promised to362 try, even though he was363 so unaccustomed. And while he was still at a loss, not knowing how he must begin, suddenly Ismenos said, ‘But stop praying, and do not owe thanks to any364 god: for I see the land and we are already saved.’
The priests of the Boeotians teach their children concerning the divine marvels, in order that they may rightly learn about the gods. And once a Boeotian priest was explaining about this, and he asked the children, ‘What now would365 you say if I were to say366 I had seen367 the sun in the night?’ hoping that some one would answer,368 that he had seen (saw) a divine marvel. But the first child, being a rustic, said, ’ I for my part should say that you saw not the sun really but the moon.’ And the second said, ’ But for my part I should reply that we ought not any longer to sleep, the sun having risen.’ But the third said, ‘But I should differ from the rest: for I should not believe you at all.’
The Kassiterioi inhabit an island, and practise many strange customs. And on that day on which they elect their governors, which always takes place at intervals of five years, noise and disorder is wont to be in the city, as the worst and most violent men of the populace revel in the streets. And there was a certain Auleides in the city, very clever and quick-witted. And this man, as he was walking quietly through the street, one of the revellers happened369 to hit with mud, so that all his face was dirtied. And as he was indignant, naturally, the man came up and began to excuse himself. ‘For it was you,’370 said he, ‘I hit, but it was the governor I was aiming at.’ And Auleides said, ‘You ought371 to have been aiming372 at me, and have hit373 the governor.’
The Boeotians call meetings in (into) their temples once a month:374 and when collected they contribute money for the god into a bag. And there was a certain Zethos, who375 was a minister of the temple, who had to carry round the bag to those present. And when all had contributed, and the mysteries were completed, the others376 went away : but Zethos saw one man waiting about, as though having something to say. Accordingly he asked him what the matter was (is): and he answered, ‘Listen now: lately, when the bag was being carried round,377 I had a mind to give a penny: but, without my knowing it,378 I gave a sixpence. And, having done this unintentionally, I request you to give me back the fivepence.’ But the’ other being unwilling, ‘Never mind,’ said the man, ‘for the god will give me thanks for the sixpence.’ But he said, ‘By no means: for the god, knowing your intention, will only give you thanks for the penny.’
There was a certain dealer, by name Prios, in other respects an excellent man, and by nature kind-hearted, but in this sometimes tiresome, that he was wonderfully desirous of knowing things concerning379 his neighbours: so that he was in danger of being called a busybody. And once when travelling with his pack to Erythrai, the heat being severe, he sat down on the mountain by the road-side under a large tree, so as to rest and take his dinner in quiet. And meanwhile, seeing a Thessalian passing by, as though from Erythrai, Prios, shouting out, asked him whether anything new had happened (say ‘happened’) there. But he, growing pale and appearing to be alarmed, answered as follows: ‘To-day, about noon, a Megarian and a Phokian murdered Amphionidas in Thebes.’
And saying this he went off as quick as possible at a run. And Prios, being much surprised at what380 he had learnt, (as to) how381 the Thessalian had heard (has heard) so quickly what happened in Thebes about midday, nevertheless was pleased at having382 so great an event to tell everywhere. And arriving at Erythrai, and being about to spend that night at a friend’s, he went to the house and related what had happened that same day in Thebes. And the friend replied it was383 truly (δὴ) remarkable: for he384 himself had not yet heard (perfect) it, though lately385 come back from Thebes: but he386 (i.e. the other) knew it, having come from the opposite direction. ‘And on this account,’ he said, ‘I wonder so much the more, because late in the day I saw Amphionidas himself alive.’
And Prios was at a loss when387 he heard how the matter really was (is). ‘For it is evident,’ he said, ‘that388 the Thessalian told me lies in announcing the man (as) dead. And yet he did not seem at all to be speaking in jest, and at the same time he appeared to be in alarm about389 himself.’ But as no clue appeared, bidding farewell to his friend he went off at dawn towards Thebes, and when he was not far off from the city, he fell in with a certain Megarian carrying a burden on his shoulders, and fleeing towards Athens as quick as his feet could bear him.390 And Prios, stopping him, asked him about the murder, whether in reality Amphionidas had been put to death (has died) by a Megarian and Phokian yesterday about midday. And he growing pale, and nearly falling down, said this: ‘He has been killed by a Phokian : but no Megarian even391 came near: nor indeed (was it) yesterday, but to-day about midday.’
And at the same time, having said this, he ran off along the road as though392 ten thousand Furies were pursuing him. And Prios, still more helpless than before about the matter, remained standing in the road, and searching for the truth. ‘It is necessary therefore,’ said he after a time to himself, ‘to go393 myself and see Amphionidas, if in reality he is dead at all.’ Thinking of these things, he arrived at nightfall at a certain village, where he had to rest. And having arrived, he conversed with all who were there about the murder, telling394 what had happened, and asking if any one knew (knows) anything more. And while all were silent, there arose here also a farmer, saying he had himself395 met Amphionidas a little before, journeying from the country to Thebai, and carrying a bag full of gold.
On hearing that, Prios could stand it (endured) no longer, but, after resting a short while, he got up while it was still night,396 as though397 he were going to the city, and himself would find out398 the truth of the matter. And having arrived a little before midday, he hastened to the house of Amphionidas in fear,399 and expecting that he should400 find something terrible. And bursting into the court he perceived a noise401 going on, and saw a man lifting up a dagger so as to kill Amphionidas. And running up he seized the murderer just in time402 before he had struck (inf.) the man, and saved his friend. Then the whole thing was explained. For three men—a Thessalian and a Megarian and a Phokian—had conspired403 to404 murder him.
Prios: a Tale—continued.
And the Thessalian first, becoming alarmed, went off in flight before he accomplished405 the murder. But the other two,406 as he had abandoned them,407 were unable to accomplish their plot on that day without their companion, but were minded to attempt the job on the following day about the same time. And on the following day the Megarian had408 likewise become reluctant, and so the Phokian, being left in the lurch, was forced to again defer the murder to the morrow. And the former ones409 as they were fleeing, one after the other, Prios met; but the last one he happened to catch on the third day actually410 attempting the deed. And thus, owing to his being a busybody,411 he saved (the life of) Amphionidas.
There was a teacher by name Enides, being a man indeed very prudent, but in word sometimes strange and unseemly. And with this man dwelt many young men, living there six months in the year, that they might learn philosophy. And it was not lawful for them, while dwelling with Enides, to go away, except for some sufficient cause. And once a youth came and asked the teacher to let him go away, on the plea that412 a relative had died. ‘For I wish,’ said he, ‘to be present at the burial, as it is fitting for a relation.’ ’ But,’ he said, ‘and who of your friends413 is dead?’ And he replied that414 his uncle had lately died. But Enides, growing sullen of face, said, ‘I allow you then to go away : but it would have been415 better if your father had416 died.’
A Boeotian arriving at Corinth, as417 there arose a north wind, and the water in the streets froze, fell down in the market-place and was ina very bad way. And the bystanders raised him up, as he was418 unable to get up, and bore him to his house. And when certain persons advised to send for a Corinthian physician, the sick man did not allow them, in the idea419 that there was only one wise physician, and he (otros) a Boeotian, by name Philondas. And they sent a messenger that he might fetch Philondas. And the messenger returned bringing a letter as follows: ‘My friend, I cannot come to you myself, but I will send a proper medicine if I only know about the mischief, where you first felt pain.’ And the sick man bade them say,420 ‘In the market-place of the Corinthians.’
A certain Chian once journeying with a companion in Asia came to a broad river which it was necessary to cross. And as there was421 no bridge, the companion was beginning to undress, as though intending to swim. But the Chian said there was no need to cross with so much trouble, for he would manage the matter easier, by throwing him to the further bank. And he said he could not throw him, being a heavy man: for he was willing to bet him a talent of gold. And this he promised, thinking he should either cross the river without trouble, or have a talent of gold. And the Chian having accepted (the bet) and taken him, threw him into the middle of the water. And as he, saved with difficulty and wet through,422 asked for the gold, ‘But I did not promise,’ said the Chian, ‘to do it the first time: come now, we must not give in, but try again.’
The Malaioi tell many strange stories about the birds, showing whence they know (how)423 to construct their nests. And they tell the following424 (tale): At first the birds by no means were wont to make nests, but deposited their eggs either openly on the grounds, or covered only with grass. But one day there came a phoenix from the rising of the sun, and having gathered together all the birds, he began to teach them how they ought425 to build houses. And taking branches and sticks, he himself in the presence426 of them all proceeded to427 build a nest, very cleverly and skilfully, making it an example in order that428 the rest might learn at the same time. And he thought that this would be pleasing to them, and that they would have much gratitude to him.
At first all were silent, and carefully watched him at work (working), considering it a gain if they shall have beautiful houses; but the phcenix first wove together some boughs so as to be a floor of the nest. And when he had finished? this, the dove, always having proud thoughts of herself, went away flying and calling out, ‘I know surely, I know surely:’ and ever since that time she only builds a floor for her eggs, but not a nest. And the phcenix none the less continued building the walls of the house: and when this was done429 straightway the thrush flew off, calling out, ‘Well,430 well,’ and most of them followed her. So that to this day the birds build up to the walls. But the swallow alone remained watching the whole work, and learned to make a roof: and therefore she alone builds a nest complete and having a roof.
And the same Malaioi tell another tale about the sea, explaining how it became salt. For the water of the sea was at first, as they say, sweet like the rivers; but Zeus, in order that it might not be defiled by men and the other animals, devised the following431 (scheme). For he gave to the king of the Malaioi a certain bag, saying it would be a great gain to him in return for his piety: for whenever he asked432 for anything, and said,433 ‘O bag, I have need of this,’ immediately, he promised, from the bag should434 appear the thing asked for. But at the same time he ordered him to be moderate in his use435 of the bag, and not436 to ask for anything except what was necessary: otherwise he threatened that he should437 suffer many dreadful things. But the king, taking the gift, was wonderfully delighted.
And for a long time he used the bag very moderately, only asking for necessary things, and always receiving from it great plenty. But once he was sailing across the sea, with many companions, and as everything had! succeeded for him, for which he had438 sailed out, being in a great (state of) delight he ordered the sailors to get ready a banquet to celebrate439 his good fortune. And when everything was prepared, some one of the Malaioi told the king that they had (have) no salt. But he, thinking440 it was necessary, asked the bag to give it, fearing however secretly somewhat, but being ashamed on account of the sailors. And immediately the bag being open proceeded to441 pour out so much salt that the ship was sunk, and those on board at the same time: nor did it cease even442 then, but even to this day it lies down below pouring out salt: so that the sea has become bitter.
There was a certain archer in Crete, very skilful in shooting,443 but at the same time accustomed to pride himself on his art. And once in the presence of a Boeotian, the Cretan said he was able to let fly his arrow so powerfully that it should fly over the moon. And the Boeotian with a laugh said, ‘I promise to pay you a talent of gold when you have done this.’444 For he knew of course that it was445 impossible. But the Cretan having accepted his promise, bade him be present on the following night, when it happened to be446 new moon. And when they were come the moon appeared about to set: accordingly the Boeotian ordered him to make haste, on the plea that the moon would disappear directly. But he, keeping silent and quiet, when447 at last she disappeared, shot his bolt at once. And having shot, he said, ‘Pay the talent: for I have shot over the moon, since she is gone under the sea, but I have shot my arrow over the sea.’
There was a certain youth dwelling in Krise, being the son of the magistrate of the Krisaioi. And he went abroad to Athens in order that he might learn448 philosophy from the sophists there; and when he was going away his father gave him plenty of money, so that he should be449 able to live at Athens one year, and pay the sophists their fee. And the boy, having arrived at the city, and having met another young man who had been450 an acquaintance (of his) previously, asked him to advise him what he ought451 to do, and in what way to live. And he gave him much strange advice [advised many strange things], and in return for many gifts he taught him very cleverly to borrow money. Accordingly, when the year was ending, and his father asked him if the money proved sufficient which he had received at his departure, he said, ‘Certainly it proved sufficient: for it was on account of this I was able to borrow the rest.’
Our words which, when, where, etc.,in English (most of them beginning with «wh-) are represented by different words in Greek according to the meaning. They are best classified as under; taking the word where for example we get the following various usages :—
(1.) Interrogative direct (int. dir.).
(2.) Interrogative indirect (int. ind.).
(3.) Relative (rel.).
And in some of them we get a fourth kind :—
(4.) Exclamatory (excl.).
To save repetition in the Vocabulary this table may be referred to :—
| Direct Interrog. | Indirect Interrog. Relative. | Exclamatory. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| where | ποῦ | ὅπου, ποῦ | ὅπου, οὗ, οὗτερ | – |
| when | πότε | ὁπότε, πότε | ὅτε, ὁπότε | — |
| what | τίς, τί | ὅστις (ὅ,τι) τίς,τί | ὅς, ὅστις, ὅσπερ | — |
| what (kind) | ποῖος | ποῖος, ὁποῖος | ὁποῖος, οἷος | οἷος |
| how | πῶς | ὅπως, πῶς | ὅπως, ὡς | ὡς |
| whence | πόθεν | ὁπόθεν, πόθεν | ὁπόθεν, ὅθεν | — |
| whither | ποῖ | ὅποι, ποῖ | ὅποι, οἷ, οἷπερ | — |
| whether | πότερος | πότερος, ὁπότερος | — | — |
| which | πότερος | |||
| who | τίς | τίς, ὅστις | ὅστις, ὃς | — |
| how much | πόςος | πόσος, ὁπόσος | ὁπόσος, ὅσος | ὅσος |
As it is never wrong, and nearly always necessary, it has been thought better to put the rule absolutely. When the learner is a good deal more advanced, he will come to understand the few cases in Prose where the Article may be omitted.↩︎
The Greeks also use ’ than,’ the particle ἤ : and then (as with Latin quam) the case of the second word is not affected. Thus ‘he is better than his father,’ ἀμείνων ἐστὶν ἤ ὁ πατήρ.↩︎
Or, by strict oratio obliqua sequence, νοσοίη: but the tense (which is all we are concerned with) is still Present.↩︎
Or, by strict oratio obliqua sequence, νοσοίη: but the tense (which is all we are concerned with) is still Present.↩︎
§ 9.↩︎
§ 34↩︎
In this kind of sentence it is often good to use the dative.↩︎
§ 11,↩︎
§ 21.↩︎
§ 9.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 37 (e).↩︎
§ 34.↩︎
§ 28.↩︎
§ 16.↩︎
§ 4.↩︎
§ 37 (d).↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
§ 21.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 37 (e).↩︎
§ 36 (b).↩︎
You may use the article, and say ‘the eyes are such.’↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
§ 2.↩︎
§ 37 (j).↩︎
§ 37 (g).↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 28.↩︎
§ 37 (e).↩︎
§ 30.↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
§ 23.↩︎
§ 9.↩︎
§ 6, 7.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ 5.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 21.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ 37 (d).↩︎
§ 22.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ εὖ λέγεις.↩︎
§76. ↩︎
§ 37 (f).↩︎
§ 10.↩︎
§ ‘To the elephant has not yet come’ (οὔπω γέγονε).↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 10.↩︎
§ 52.↩︎
§ 16.↩︎
§ 37 (f). ↩︎
§ 38.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 37 (f), 10.↩︎
§ 35 (b).↩︎
§ 30.↩︎
§ 52.↩︎
§ 16.↩︎
§ 56.↩︎
§ 4.↩︎
§ 36 (b).↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 19.↩︎
§ 33.↩︎
§ 57.↩︎
§ A Persian name for ‘governor’ of a province.↩︎
‘The then custom.’ See Article, § 6.↩︎
§ 36 (b).↩︎
Use of ἔφη, § 71.↩︎
Use of αὐτός with right word.↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
37 (e).↩︎
‘Man and singular,’ § 33.↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
‘Man and singular,’ § 33.↩︎
Words marked I are found in the table of Irregular Verbs at the end.↩︎
§ 8.↩︎
Tenses § 57.↩︎
Article, § 7.↩︎
See Participles, § 68.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 56.↩︎
§ 56.↩︎
Tenses, § 57.↩︎
Use πῶς, and see Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
Use of Infinitive, § 39.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
Article and Participle, § 5.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 52.↩︎
Inf. with Article, § 8.↩︎
§ 17.↩︎
§ 38 (d).↩︎
Use of Participle, § 44.↩︎
Use of Participles, § 44.↩︎
Interrogations, see § 74.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
Case after verb ‘to be,’ § 38.↩︎
§ 56.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§36 (b).↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
§ 57.↩︎
μέν and δέ,§ 76.↩︎
To be …, often adv. α ἔχω.↩︎
= were not willing.↩︎
§ 33.↩︎
Use of inf. § 39.↩︎
§ 49↩︎
§ 35 (b).↩︎
§ 7.↩︎
Neuter, § 30.↩︎
§ 35 (b).↩︎
Case after Verbs ‘to be,’ etc., § 38.↩︎
§ 42.↩︎
§ 35 (b).↩︎
Participles, § 44.↩︎
§ 56.↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
Tenses of Partic. § 68.↩︎
Dat. § 37 (f).↩︎
Use of Partic. § 44.↩︎
Construct. of δῆλος, § 32.↩︎
Construct. of δῆλος, § 32.↩︎
§ 36 (d).↩︎
Reflexive, § 17.↩︎
Tenses, § 56.↩︎
Say ‘is present.’↩︎
Use Partic. § 44↩︎
Tenses § 56.↩︎
§ 68.↩︎
Tenses, § 56.↩︎
§ 57.↩︎
Use of ἄλλος, § 22.↩︎
Partic. condit. § 49.↩︎
§ 43.↩︎
Say ‘use.’↩︎
Questions, § 74.↩︎
§ 68.↩︎
§ 31.↩︎
Article (τὰ τοῦ βίου).↩︎
μὲν and δὲ, § 76.↩︎
Article, § 10.↩︎
Verbs, φαίνομαι, § 42.↩︎
‘It being summer,’ θέρους ὄντος.↩︎
Infin. § 42.↩︎
Past Tenses, § 67.↩︎
’I have laboured’ (aorist).↩︎
§ 77.↩︎
Questions, § 74.↩︎
’This good and dear man.’↩︎
Tenses, § 56.↩︎
Negative, § 78.↩︎
§§ 43-50.↩︎
Say ‘thither.’↩︎
Gen. Abs.↩︎
‘Answering nothing.’↩︎
Tenses, § 55 (2).↩︎
Case, § 37 (d).↩︎
Partic. § 43.↩︎
May use Participle and Article, § 5.↩︎
λανθάνω, Verbs § 43.↩︎
See Gen. Abs. §35 (g).↩︎
Use of δῆλος, § 32.↩︎
Tenses, § 63.↩︎
Use of Partic. § 44.↩︎
§ 50.↩︎
Partic. omitted, § 52.↩︎
§ 5.↩︎
Gen. Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
33.↩︎
§ 2.↩︎
§ 78.↩︎
Negatives, § 77.↩︎
Question, § 74.↩︎
ἔφη, Posit. § 71.↩︎
ἔφη, Posit. § 71.↩︎
Gen Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
Gen Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
Say, ‘of those thence.’↩︎
§ 52.↩︎
‘How.’↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
μή, § 77.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
‘Thence.’↩︎
Part. § 44.↩︎
Gen. Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
§ 17.↩︎
§ 25.↩︎
§ 45; use verb ’contend.’↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
Adverbs of Place, § 73.↩︎
’Having taken place.↩︎
Adjective Predicative, § 31.↩︎
§ 49.↩︎
Participles, § 66.↩︎
Article, and say ‘thence,’ §§ 6, 7.↩︎
§ 36 (d).↩︎
Infinitive, § 39.↩︎
Part. § 44↩︎
Gen. Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
μηδείς, § 77.↩︎
Use Infinitive.↩︎
Use Participle, agreeing with ‘woman.’↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
Cases, § 37 (a).↩︎
Participle.↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
Article, § 10.↩︎
Acc. § 36 (c).↩︎
Adv. § 73.↩︎
’From’ for ’at.’↩︎
’This night,’ § 35 (f),↩︎
§ 37 (g).↩︎
Tenses, § 57.↩︎
§ 64.↩︎
§ 52.↩︎
Participle, § 50.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
‘It being summer,’ § 35 (g).↩︎
Future Participle.↩︎
Tense, § 64.↩︎
§ 48.↩︎
§ 59.↩︎
§ 38 (g).↩︎
§ 38 (g).↩︎
§ 5.↩︎
§ 45.↩︎
§ 51.↩︎
Tenses § 59.↩︎
g.↩︎
§ 66.↩︎
Aorist.↩︎
‘Of those there,’ §6.↩︎
§ 44 (1).↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
§ 36 (d).↩︎
Dual.↩︎
Use ἔχω↩︎
Use Participle, ‘having been disobedient,’ § 66.↩︎
§ 48.↩︎
Interrogations, § 74.↩︎
§ 43.↩︎
’Are.’↩︎
§ 77.↩︎
‘Him being,’ § 51.↩︎
Subj. and Opt. of purpose, § 70.↩︎
Art. § 7.↩︎
Tenses, § 59.↩︎
Attraction of Relative, § 27.↩︎
Gen. § 35 (e).↩︎
Nom Pl. agreeing with Ληγίοι.↩︎
Negatives, § 77.↩︎
Participles omitted, § 52.↩︎
Tenses, § 56.↩︎
Would have been, ἄν ἧσθη. § 69.↩︎
§ 49.↩︎
Participle.↩︎
§ 25.↩︎
§ 43.↩︎
Article, § 6.↩︎
Gen. Abs. § 35 (g).↩︎
§ 36 (c)., § 29.↩︎
Art. and Part. § 5, § 25.↩︎
§ 45.↩︎
§ 35 (b), § 8.↩︎
Use of Genitive Absolute with καίπερ, § 50.↩︎
Use of δή, § 75.↩︎
ὥστε, with Indicative.↩︎
§ 5.↩︎
§ 35 (g).↩︎
Use of ἕκαστος, § 29.↩︎
Use of Participle, § 44.↩︎
Use of Participle, § 44.↩︎
Position of ἔφη, § 71.↩︎
Adjective of Position, § 4.↩︎
Article and Participle, § 25.↩︎
Use of Participle, § 47.↩︎
Use of Participle.↩︎
Use of Optative with ἄν, § 69.↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
‘What doing she ought to pass,’ etc.↩︎
Use of Adjective Predicate, § 31, ‘composing very solemn.’↩︎
Accusative Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Accusative Infinitive, § 40. / Negatives, § 78.↩︎
Participle.↩︎
Use of ἄν, § 69.↩︎
Use the Passive.↩︎
§ 35 (3); also use of Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
Use of Participles, § 43.↩︎
Use of Optat. with οἴν, § 69.↩︎
Say ’which you wearing will.’↩︎
Use of Infinitive, § 39.↩︎
Attracted relative, § 27.↩︎
Use of Participle, § 43.↩︎
ώς with Gen. Abs. Particle, § 46.↩︎
Attacted Relative, § 27.↩︎
Tenses, § 56.↩︎
§ 36 (b).↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
περί (a).↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
ἐπί (d).↩︎
Genitive Absolute, § 35 (g).↩︎
Say ‘if now … shall be quit.’↩︎
Use of Possessive, § 21.↩︎
Perfect or Aorist, § 64.↩︎
Use of articiple, § 44.↩︎
Accusative Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Use Aorist.↩︎
§ 45.↩︎
§ 44.↩︎
‘The weavers saluting and doing obeisance.’ See Participles, § 44.↩︎
Use ἐπεὶ with Aorist.↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
§ 36 (c).↩︎
§ 36 (c).↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
Acc. Inf. § 40.↩︎
Tense of Participle, § 68.↩︎
Opt. and ἄν, § 69.↩︎
Participle, § 35 (g).↩︎
Use of τοιοῦτος, § 24.↩︎
Article and Adv. § 6.↩︎
§ 4.↩︎
Acc. Inf. § 40.↩︎
πολὐς, § 33.↩︎
Use Participle.↩︎
Case after verb ‘to be,’ § 38.↩︎
§ 49.↩︎
§ 77↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ 75.↩︎
§ 65.↩︎
§ 37 (a).↩︎
πᾶν.↩︎
οὗτος nad ὅδε, § 23.↩︎
Causal Participle, § 47.↩︎
Acc.↩︎
§ 25.↩︎
Tenses, § 63.↩︎
Dative after compound Verb.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
Use καταστῆναι ἐς↩︎
Adj. as Pred. § 31.↩︎
Sub. Opt. of purpose, § 70.↩︎
See Nom. §§ 34, 40.↩︎
See Gen. § 35 (f).↩︎
Part. § 47.↩︎
‘any’ after Neg. § 78.↩︎
Tense idiom, § 43.↩︎
§ 50.↩︎
Neg. § 78.↩︎
Opt. with ἄν, § 69.↩︎
εἰ λέγοιμι.↩︎
Infinitive Aorist : person need not be expressed.↩︎
§ 42, ἐλπίζω, idiom.↩︎
Participle with Verbs, § 43.↩︎
Emphatic position, § 72.↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
Present Infinitive.↩︎
Aorist Infinitive.↩︎
Genitive, § 35 (f).↩︎
§ 53.↩︎
§ 76.↩︎
§ 53.↩︎
λανθάνω, Partic. with Verbs, § 42.↩︎
§ 6.↩︎
Relative attracted, § 27.↩︎
Dramatic Particle, § 75.↩︎
Participle and Verb, § 43.↩︎
Acc. Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Nominative Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Concess. Participle, § 50.↩︎
Acc. Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Temporal Participle, § 44.↩︎
§ 32.↩︎
περί (d).↩︎
ὥς εἶχε ποδῶν.↩︎
Negative, § 78.↩︎
§ 46.↩︎
See αὔτός, § 16.↩︎
§ 25.↩︎
Nominative Infinitive, § 40.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
§ 46.↩︎
Future Participle.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
§ 42.↩︎
§ 51.↩︎
φθάνω, § 43.↩︎
§ 57.↩︎
ὥστε with Infin.↩︎
πρίν and Infinitive.↩︎
Use Dual.↩︎
Causal Participle, § 47.↩︎
§ 57.↩︎
ἐκεῖνοι.↩︎
Use αὐτὸς somehow.↩︎
§ 8.↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
Ethic d. § 37 (c).↩︎
Acc. Inf. § 40.↩︎
Ind. and Opt. with ἄν, § 69.↩︎
Use the Aor. Indic.↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
Insert ὅτι, but no verb required.↩︎
§ 47.↩︎
Tenses, § 64, 66.↩︎
Verbs with Inf. § 42.↩︎
Use of Neut. Adj. § 30.↩︎
Pres. Indic. or Optative.↩︎
Participle.↩︎
Tenses, § 59.↩︎
Final, § 70.↩︎
Participle.↩︎
εὖ↩︎
Neuter Adjective, § 30.↩︎
Use Present Optative.↩︎
Use Present Optative.↩︎
Future Infinitive. See § 42.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
Negatives, § 77.↩︎
Future Infinitive. See § 42.↩︎
Tenses, § 57 (or, if Participle, § 47).↩︎
ὡς ἐπὶ (d).↩︎
Dramatic Particles, § 75.↩︎
Tense, § 59.↩︎
Negatives, § 79.↩︎
Article and Infinitive, § 8.↩︎
Participle, § 44.↩︎
Participle, § 51.↩︎
Participle, § 43.↩︎
ἐπεὶ, with Aorist Indicative.↩︎
Final, § 70.↩︎
Use ὤστε with the Accusative and Infinitive.↩︎
Tenses, § 57.↩︎
Use Present Optative of δεῖ.↩︎